0 - History Flashcards
- 1 dose of produced greater improvement in performance than combined efforts of staff (1937)
- Led to methylphenidate (Ritalin) synthesized in 1944 (not straight up amphetamine)
- Led to DSM-III (1980) ADHD
- Paradoxical effects (helps all to focus but… genuine brain dysfunction will respond with lessened hyperactivity but those without genuine brain dysfunction become more hyper; suggests a biological difference.
Amphetamine (Benzedrine) for childhood hyperactivity
Sedatives. Led to “Sleep Therapy” (1903). If we force people to sleep they may wake up better/more subdued. People gained large amounts of weight from insulin and not very effective. Minor effectivensss but largely ineffective.
Barbiturates
Adorns seal of American psychiatric association. Was the first to believe that mental illness is a disease of the mind and not possession by demons. Wrote “Observations and Inquiries upon the Diseases of the Mind” (1812), the first psychiatric textbook printed in the US.
Benjamin Rush, Father of American Psychiatry (1745-1813).
Led to Psychiatry as pills in the 1950s. Works well for catatonia. Deinstitutionalization occurred largely because of it. Roughly 50% of those deinstitutionalized relapsed/returned to treatment.
FDA approved as an anti-emetic. Calms delirium, mania, and psychosis.
Chlorpromazine (chlorinated promazine); anti-psychotic.
- Used to manage stress reactions on battlefield; included in med kits of U.S. soldiers in Korean War [1950-1953]. Discontinued because injured soldiers indifferent to rescue.
- Creates Apathy/contentment/indifference in Macht’s rope climbing test
- Bored housewives use it; “Mother’s little helper” & Thorazine (“tranquilizers” rebrand as not “sedatives” because barbiturates had bad reputation).
- Old guard psychiatrists demanded evidence
- Clinical trails to compare chlorpromazine to treatment as usual or placebo
- Joel Elkes chlorpromazine study in professionals. Helped but at too high a cost in demotivation.
Adopted checklists and criteria in order to increase replicability
DSM-III (1980)
Student of Wundt. Coined “pharma-co-psychology”. Contributed to our idea of categorization by identifying two main psychological diseases (with many subtypes):
- Manic Depression (“manic-depressive insanity”) and
- Schizophrenia (“dementia praecox”)
Emile Kraepelin (1856 – 1926)
Recovery thought not possible from dementia praecox (including catatonia). Tended to look at prognosis and put negative ones into the dementia praecox category.
Created urea synthetically in 1828 and dismantled the argument for Vitalism.
Friedrich Wöhler (1800-1882).
An analogue for what its like to be schizophrenic (60s-70s research)
M Theory
Coined “Psychopharmacology”: The study of how substances influence behaviour.
Created rope climbing test (1915): used for decades after
- Rats conditioned to avoid shocks (or get food) by climbing rope….
- Opioid salt administration can lead rats to not bother with either.
David Macht (1882 – 1961)
If patients came down with Malaria the syphilitic insanity would go away. High fever destroying the syphillis infection. Cured a very small subset of madness (the ones who didn’t die).
Wagner von Jauregg won the (1927) Nobel Prize for Malaria Innoculation
Malaria Fever Therapy (1917)
Now called Bipolar II
Manic Depressive Illness
Describe Mapping Issues in Psychology/Psychiatry
Mean identified disorders are constructs that are not necessarily “real” but are functionally useful.
Precursor to Chlorpromazin
Methylene blue
Monoamine Hypothesis
Depression is related to low levels of monoamines (norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine)
Mania is related to high levels of them.
Now we have: Tofranil, Aventil for PTSD, OCD, Panic Disorder, GAD
Originally meant “soul”. Now means non-physical mind and consiousness/memories and capacities.
Psyche
In the 1950s and 60s they posited all mental illness was caused by psychic conflicts
Aaron Beck (1962) and European researchers testing interrater reliability of diagnoses
About 50% agreement, even in manic-depressive and schizophrenic cases
the DSM-II (1968) continued to be Freud-dominated (e.g., “neurosis”)
Psychodynamic Psychology
Emphasizes drug-induced changes in mood, thinking, and behaviour.
Psychopharmacology
Responsible for checklist/reliability in DSM III. Believed psychiatrists must be able to come to the same conclusion based on commonality of symptoms. Led to brain/body pragmatism.
Robert Spitzer (1932 – 2015)
Wrote “On being sane in Insane Places” (1973). Famous study/book was proven to be falsely conducted but nevertheless had large impact on society (One Flew Over the Coo-coo’s Nest, etc). Also caused distrust of psychiatry and motivated Spitzer to construct the DSM3 as he did.
David Rosenhan
First generation antidepressants (e.g., imipramine) (1950s). Block reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin, or both
Tricyclic Antidepressants
When Urea stays in the body it causes gout, heart problems, and manic depression. Illness is caused by the body not properly excreting urea.
Uric Acid Diathesis Theory
Theory of Treatment: Lithium breaks down urea into uric acid and gets expelled — works for manic depression but not for the reasons thought. Rejected theory in 1900 when shown not true and lithium abandoned as treatment (even though it worked). Lithium readopted in 1950s because it worked.
Theory that the origin and phenomena of life are dependent on a force or principle distinct from purely chemical or physical forces. Argued that mammals can make organic compound like urea because their life force is special.
Vitalism
