YR1: Research Methods Flashcards
what is primary data?
data you collect yourself for your own purpose
what is secondary data?
data collected by someone else, that is already in existence
what is quantitative data?
number based / statistical evidence
what is qualitative data?
word / picture based evidence
what do positivists seek to do via sociological research?
seek to explain human behaviour in a scientific way by looking at patterns in behaviour
what do interpretivists seek to do via sociological research?
seek to understand human behaviour by achieving verstehen by looking at how people think and feel.
what does verstehen mean?
empathetic understanding
what type of data to positivists and interpretivists prefer to use
positivists prefer quantitative date
interpretivists prefer qualitative data
NAME the 5 factors that could effect a sociologist’s choice of topic to research
1) the sociologist’s perspective
2) society’s values
3) access
4) funding bodies
5) ethics
explain how the sociologist’s perspective can effect a sociologist’s choice of research topic
their theoretical perspective impacts the topics they are interested in. for example, Feminists are more likely to research gender and study inequalities
explain how society’s values can effect a sociologist’s choice of research topic
more likely to research issues that are seen as important in society at the time. hot topics. for example, the impact of covid on education
explain how access can effect a sociologist’s choice of research topic
how accessible a topic area is becomes important
explain how funding bodies can effect a sociologist’s choice of research topic
funding bodies= external organisations that provide the funding for sociological research. It is likely that the funding body will determine the topic they want you to research. Plus, the hotter the topic is, the more likely you are to be funded
explain how ethics can effect a sociologist’s choice of research topic
researchers have to be mindful of protecting respondents - must not cause harm. Must maintain privacy, consent and confidentiality
What does PET stand for in research methods?
Practical
Ethical
Theoretical
summarise the elements of practical aspects of research methods
Resources: time, money, requirements of the funding body, personal skills
Access: access to subject area + participants
explain the elements of ethical aspects of research methods
Risk of harm
Informed consent
Maintain privacy / confidentiality
explain the elements of theoretical aspects of research methods
Validity / Verstehen
Objectivity : lack of bias / influence on findings
Reliability: repeatability
Representativeness: is the sample a true reflection of population so that generalisations can be made?
what is triangulation?
Using 2 or more methods or sources to obtain a more rounded picture of something
give an example of a study that used triangulation
Barker 1984 Making of a Moonie. Used in depth interviews, participant observation, questionnaires and life histories
NAME the 5 steps of the research process once a topic has been selected
1) Formulating an aim or hypothesis
2) Operationalising concepts
3) Carrying out a pilot study
4) Deciding on the survey population
5) selecting a final sample from the survey population
what is a hypothesis?
a prediction of what you think you will find
what doe it mean to operationalise concepts?
define concepts to make measurable
what is a pilot study?
a small scale preliminary study to test the research design
what is the survey population?
the group which the research is based on. eg: girls 16-18 at York college
what is sampling?
the process of gathering your participants
name 2 sampling methods and explain them
1) Random: no process - out of a hat
2) Quasi random: systematic
3) stratified: split sampling frame into groups + use % from each
4) quota: a target is set to reach - find people to fulfil it
5) volunteer: advert/email for participants + wait
6) snowball: participants put you in contact with others
what 3 types of experiments are there?
- laboratory
- field
- natural / comparative
what are independent and dependant variables?
independent - variable that stands alone. often manipulated
dependent - measured. depends on what is done to the independent variable
what are laboratory experiments?
take place in a completely unnatural setting (lab). Involves the manipulation of the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable.
what kind of data to laboratory experiments produce and who favours them?
tends to produce quantitative data - preferred by positivists
which piece of research was conducted with a laboratory experiment?
Milgram’s Study into Obedience
what was Milgram wanting to investigate in his study into obedience?
it focused on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. He was interested in researching how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming someone - German guards of concentration camps in WW2
summarise Milgram’s study into obedience
-volunteers were recruited for a lab experiment investigating ‘learning’ (lie). 40 males 20-50 yrs old.
-the participants were to play the role of a teacher, and believed other participants were ‘learners’.
-the ‘learner’ was strapped to an electric chair and was meant to be shocked by the ‘teacher’ every time they got an answer wrong. The volts would increase after each shock
-All the participants continued to 300 volts, 65% of them continued to the highest level of 450 volts
give theoretical strengths of lab experiments
valid - highly controlled.
easy to interpret results
objective - the researcher doesn’t influence the outcome
reliability - follows a set, systematic procedure which can be replicated
give practical limitations of lab experiments
can use lots of resources - can be expensive, need lots of special equipment, often have to pay participants
access - people may not want to take part
give ethical limitations of lab experiments
often deception / a lack of informed consent
risk of harm - manipulation
give theoretical limitations of lab experiments
lack of validity - labs are not real life settings so participants know it is not real
Hawthorne effect - participants change their behaviour as they know they’re being experimented on
tend to be unrepresentative - numbers are small + only certain types of people willing to take part
what are field experiments?
involve manipulation of events but take place in real life settings. those involved are generally not aware that they are subjects in an experiment
name a research study that used a field experiment
Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968 - Pygmalion in the classroom
summarise the Pygmalion in the classroom study
-IQ-tested all the children in a school. Told the 18 teachers that the tests done could predict which children would academically bloom. They gave the teachers the names of these students, however the names were chosen at random.
-When the children were retested a year and 2 years later, many of the children whose names were positively passed on to the teachers had succeeded more than others.
give practical strengths of field experiments
cheaper + less need for resources / equipment than lab experiments
give theoretical strengths of field experiments
validity - more natural + realistic than lab experiment
presents more of a true picture
no Hawthorne effect so more objective + valid
give practical limitations of field experiments
can be hard to gain access / persuade people to take part, especially if you are using their property
give ethical limitations of field experiments
lack of consent + deception
give theoretical limitations of field experiments
lack of representativeness - samples tend to be small + limited in scope
hard to replicate as there’s more variables to control
what are natural experiments / comparative studies?
involve the gathering of statistical data which usually comes from secondary sources. Examined for patterns and ultimately cause
which research study is an example of a natural experiment / comparative study?
Durkheim’s 1897 study of suicide
summarise Durkheim’s study of suicide
analysed suicide rates statistics across Europe, 20,000 suicide cases. He found that Protestant countries had higher suicide rates than Catholic countries. Countries which had more cities had higher rates. Single people had more suicide rates than married, childless more than parents. Suicide is caused by social factors like levels of social integration.
give practical strengths of natural experiments / comparative studies
doesn’t need many resources
tends to be cheap, with minimal skills
most secondary data can be quite accessible
give ethical strengths of natural experiments / comparative studies
no issues of confidentiality or harm
give theoretical strengths of natural experiments / comparative studies
reliable - easy to repeat
objective - researcher doesn’t influence the data
representative
what are questionnaires?
involves writing questions down, distributing the questions to your sample, and once completing collecting the answers back in
give theoretical limitations of natural experiments / comparative studies
validity - sociologist wasn’t involved in the original data collection, so has no way of knowing if its accurate
subjective - analysis of the data is subjective to the sociologist’s individual interpretations
what 2 types of questionnaires are there?
close ended - answers with a set amount of pre-determined responses . (tick boxes/scales). quantitative data
open ended - participants are free to answer however they wish. qualitative data
give an example of a structured / close ended questionnaire
the UK census
-done every 10 years by government. was sent by post to every household, now online. Legal obligation to complete. closed questions on religion, jobs etc
Give practical strengths of questionnaires
can be cheap if done online. computer programmes mean less skills are needed to analyse data. relatively quick to administer + analyse
Give ethical strengths of questionnaires
gain clear consent. privacy and confidentiality is protected.
Purposes are explained, harm is minimised
Give theoretical strengths of questionnaires
representative
reliable
objective - often self completion so researcher not influential on outcomes
valid
Give practical limitations of questionnaires
if postal - expensive
people can be unwilling to take part so may have to give incentives
Give theoretical limitations of questionnaires
inflexible
respondents may not feel any rapport with researcher so don’t take it seriously
lying, forgetting, social desirability
low response rate - unrepresentative
NAME the 4 types of interviews
structured / formal
unstructured / informal
semi-structured
group
what are unstructured / informal interviews?
more open ended questions
free flowing / guided conversation
freedom to vary questions + pursue different lines of questioning
each interview is unique
what are structured / formal interviews?
set interview schedule - list of questions
each participant asked same questions
interviewer must use same wording / tone of voice etc
what are semi-structured interviews?
set questions with free flow / open ended where needed
mix of quantitative and qualitative data produced
what are group interviews?
more than one participant
usually in unstructured format
qualitative data
all types of interviews involve a social interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee. List the ways the social interaction can threaten the validity of the interview
-artificiality
-status and power inequalities
-cultural differences
-social desirability
-ethical issues
-interviewer bias
give an example of a structured interview
the crime survey of England and Wales
Victim survey. interviews now carried out using laptops. 2012 - sample 50,000
give practical strengths of structured interviews
quicker + cheaper than unstructured interviews
researcher needs low skill
response rate is higher for face to face interviews than online
give ethical strengths of structured interviews
consent is gained and can be withdrawn
self completion sections prevents feelings of pressure with answers
give theoretical strengths of structured interviews
validity - can build up rapport - honesty
reliable - same questions
representative
give practical limitations of structured interviews
have to pay interviewers - costly
more time consuming than questionnaires
give ethical limitations of structured interviews
face to face interview = intrusive? people feel forced to answer?
give theoretical limitations of structured interviews
imposition problem + social desirability reduces validity
give an example of an unstructured interview
Dobash and Dobash 1979 study of domestic violence
summarise Dobash and Dobash study of domestic violence
109 interviews with women who had experienced domestic violence and were living in a refugee centre.
many of the interviews were conducted by 2 female research assistants who spent months in contact with the refuges. spent external time with them - good rapport.
Interviews were between 2-12 hours. Quantitative + qualitative data
give practical limitations of unstructured interviews
time consuming
need qualified interviewer
give theoretical strengths of unstructured interviews
verstehen
build rapport - validity
give ethical limitations of unstructured interviews
very intrusive.
can lose objectivity by becoming too involved
give theoretical limitations of unstructured interviews
hard to replicate - unreliable
sample sizes tend to be small
give an example of a group interview
Willis 1977 Learning to Labour
summarise Willis 1977 Learning to Labour study
unstructured group interview with ‘the lads’ for study into why working class boys turned to anti school subcultures. Allowed the boys to feel more comfortable by being with their mates. Believed it would encourage them to open up more. However, could’ve been issues with boys succumbing to peer pressure more
give practical strengths of group interviews
quicker + cheaper than structured interviews
give theoretical strengths of group interviews
build rapport - validity
verstehen
give practical limitations of group interviews
need skilled interviewer
give theoretical limitations of group interviews
unrepresentative?
unreliable - not easy to replicate
Hawthorne effect / peer pressure / social desirability - less valid
what are the 4 types of observations?
overt
covert
participant
non-participant
what are overt observations?
participants are aware the observation is taking place and they are aware of the nature of the study. Informed consent is gained - more ethical
what are covert observations?
participants are unaware that they are part of a study. Researcher goes undercover and keeps their identity as a researcher hidden. Informed consent is not gained- unethical
what are the 3 struggles that can occur with observations?
GETTING IN
STAYING IN
GETTING OUT
Give an example of a covert / participant observation
Humphrey’s 1975 Tearoom Trade
summarise Humphrey’s 1975 Tearoom Trade
study of impersonal sexual behaviour in men’s public toilets
Observed the men and wrote down their ages, clothes etc. Also conducted informal interviews with the men, some were agreed to, some were door to door in disguise as a survey on men’s health
give an example of a piece of covert / overt participant observation research
Patrick 1973 A Glasgow Gang observed
summarise Patrick’s A Glasgow Gang observed
Patrick, a teacher, was invited by a 16 year old juvenile offender / gang leader to meet his gang. Patrick posed as Tim’s friend, and met with the gang twelve times. Found struggles with gaining entry in the gang and maintaining his cover, as well as leaving
give theoretical strengths of covert participant observations
valid - no Hawthorne effect. people behaving naturally so you get a true picture. Verstehen
give practical limitations of covert participant observations
time consuming
requires very skilled researcher
access - can be difficult to persuade a group to accept you
give ethical limitations of covert participant observations
covert so involves deception + lack of informed consent
often used to study illegal groups so risk of harm is high
give theoretical limitations of covert participant observations
lacks objectivity - chance of ‘going native’
unreliable
unrepresentative - groups tend to be small and unique so cannot make generalisations
give an example of an overt participant observation
Barker 1984 The Making of a Moonie
summarise Barker’s Making of a Moonie study
study of religious cult - ‘the Moonies’. Carried out overt participant observations, where she joined in with activities like prayer meetings, as well as unstructured interviews and questionnaires.
give an example of an overt non-participant observation study
Wright : Racism in the classroom
summarise Wright’s Racism in the classroom study
ethnographic study into possible racism in 4 inner city London primary schools. Found that children from Black and Asian backgrounds were labelled + treated differently.
Spent over a term in each school, Observed in classrooms, playgrounds, staff rooms, staff meetings etc
give ethical strengths over non-participant observations
informed consent is gained - no deception
give theoretical strengths over non-participant observations
valid - take place in natural setting
give practical limitations over non-participant observations
time consuming
access can be tricky as people don’t always want to be observed but you need their consent
give theoretical limitations over non-participant observations
lack validity as the Hawthorne effect is possible
lack reliability
subjective
unrepresentative - groups tend to be small
what are the 2 main types of secondary sources that sociologists may use for research?
-official statistics
-documents
give 3 examples of types of official statistics
- birth / death rates
- marriage / divorce rates
- unemployment rates
- exam results
- suicide rates
- crime rates
what are ‘hard’ official statistics?
factual, objective statistics that are difficult to manipulate. Such as birth and marriage rates
what are ‘soft’ official statistics?
statistics that are more open to interpretation. they are much more subjective and may very well be the victim of manipulation. Such as, crime and unemployment rates
give practical strengths of using official statistics as a research method
free source of a large amount of data
allows comparisons between groups
collected at regular intervals
large scale
give ethical strengths of using official statistics as a research method
quantitative data can keep people anonymous - no names used
give theoretical strengths of using official statistics as a research method
hard statistics very valid
reliable
very representative
give theoretical limitations of using official statistics as a research method
the dark figure - statistics cannot be 100% accurate
soft statistics are less valid as they may have been manipulated
Interpretivists argue that ‘official statistics’ are merely just a social construction
give practical limitations of using official statistics as a research method
what if data you are researching on doesn’t exist?
give 2 examples of written documents
diaries
newspapers
medical records
novels
letters
government reports
give 2 examples of non-written documents
films
photographs
paintings
radio shows
TV
what are the 3 types of documents that sociologists could use for research?
-personal
-public
-historical
give practical strengths of PERSONAL documents
cheap + quick
sometimes the only available evidence
give theoretical strengths of Personal documents
verstehen - insight and validity
give practical limitations of personal documents
can be hard to access - people may not want to hand over their personal documents
give ethical limitations of personal documents
no consent given.
give theoretical limitations of personal documents
lacking in validity - can they be authenticated?
unrepresentative - subjective + unique
open to interpretation
give practical strengths of public documents
cheap source of data - generally free to access, someone has already gathered the data
give theoretical strengths of public documents
validity - qualitative data with high levels of insight
representative
give theoretical limitations of public documents
may need special skills to interpret / understand the document
could be bias
What methods can positivists use to create quantitative data out of documents
Content Analysis
explain the process of Content Analysis
-sociologist decides on categories they want to study from the source
-they then work through the source, counting each time a reference to each category appear
-they are then able to compare this information with other sources
give practical, ethical and theoretical strengths of content analysis
-cheap + quick
-many sources are easily available
-few ethical issues if permission to use source is gained
-reliable
give theoretical limitations of content analysis
verstehen is limited - tells us little about the meaning of what appears in the documents
subjective - based on sociologist’s interpretations
limited representativeness
NAME the 3 other research methods sociologists can use
- CASE STUDIES
- LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
- LIFE HISTORIES
What are longitudinal studies?
-follows the same sample over an extended period of time
-revisit the sample at regular intervals - trace developments over time + make comparisons between groups
-but can be costly and Hawthorne effect + sample attrition are risks
what are life histories?
-look at individuals’ life experiences
-may involve individuals writing down their experiences like in autobiographies, or carrying out interviews
gives a detailed insight into what has shaped a persons life
