Week2 PT 1 & 2 Flashcards
guided by a clear hypothesis (what an idea about
they expect to find) and test whether the
hypothesis will be supported by data
Hypothesis-driven research
data-driven explorative approach, without pre-
assumptions about what might be
found
Discovery-based science
The Scientific Method is an example of what approach to research / science
Hypothesis-driven research
Question: “Screen time damage
teenagers’ intelligence?”
* Hypothesis: “more screen time,
lower intelligence”
* Study: manipulate screen time and
measure IQ
* Data analysis: more time < less time
in IQ
Piaget’s constructivist theory of
development
&
– Bowlby’s theory of attachment
are examples of what approaches to research / science
Discovery-based Research
Discovering and understanding
principles of children’s learning
and development (what children
do and what development looks
like) without presuppositions
Discovery-based Research
who participates in a study
Sample
results from a
sample extended to a population
– Samples size (larger, higher
generalizability)
– Sample demographics (representative?)
– Convenience sampling (may bias
findings if the sample lacks
representativeness)
Generalizability
Data collection based on
– Interviews (structured vs. clinical)
– Questionnaires/Surveys
Self-report Methodologies
Data collection based on
– Naturalistic (e.g., home, school)
– Structured Observations (e.g., lab)
Observation
Data collection based on
- brain activation, heart rate, blood pressure. Eye
movements, hormones
Physiological Assessments
Study Design that are Correlational, ______ behaviour.
While study designs that are experimental, ________ behaviour
Predict
Explain
relationship
between two or
more variables?
- Direction
- Strength
Correlational
design
Problems with Correlational Design
- Direction-of-causation problem
- Third-variable problem
Three variables:
– Independent variable (IV): different
treatment conditions (e.g., violent vs.
non-violent video game)
– Dependent variable (DV): what is
measured (e.g., aggression）
– Confounding variables (CVs): Other
relevant variables (e.g., sex, age, past
experience, parenting)
Experimental design
Two techniques of experimental design
Experimental control
Random Assignment
Experimental Design where
randomly assign
children to the experimental and control
groups.
Random Assignment
Experimental Design where
manipulate or
control specific experiences
encountered by children
Experimental control
Quasi-experimental
Designs
- Cross-sectional design
- Longitudinal design
- Microgenetic design
Age groups: age-related
differences
- Single-age group
differences in a key
variable
This example is a method of Quasi-experimental research known as ______________
Cross-sectional design (across age groups or across groups)
differential rates of attrition between treatment and control groups can skew results
_______ happens when participants with similar characteristics drop out of a study, reducing their representation in the research.
- threat to internal validity
Attrition effect
a variable that
explains the association
between the IV and DV
Mediator
Following two or more age cohorts (i.e., age groups) over time,
A mixture of cross-sectional and longitudinal
Cohort-Sequential
“WEIRD” Sample
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic
Frequent, closely spaced
observations of
children to track
processes that
produce the
developmental
changes
A series of overlapping
waves
Microgenetic Studies
– Face, construct, concurrent,
predictive
– External/ecological
in research
Validity
– Interobserver reliability
– Test-retest reliability
in research
Reliability
Validity
* Reliability
* Replicability and
transparency (open science
practice)
* Ethics
are examples of _____
Scientific Rigor and Integrity
Scientific Rigor and Integrity aims
Validity
– Face, construct, concurrent,
predictive
– External/ecological
* Reliability
– Interobserver reliability
– Test-retest reliability
* Replicability and
transparency (open science
practice)
* Ethics in Researech
Ethical Research Principles
- Informed Consent
- Voluntary Partcipation / Allowed withdrawal
- Confidentiality
- Full disclosure / no - minimal deception
-Anonymity - Reduction of harm
- Mutual responsibilies
- Fairness, equality and justice
MODEL OF INTERACTION (SEE PHONE)
An occurrence when one
characteristic is controlled by two
or more genes
Polygenetic inheritance
traits (e.g., height, weight, skin/eye
color) determined by
multiple pairs of genes.
Polygenic traits
The degree to which environmental
factors affect a given trait
Phenotypic plasticity
In Phenotypic plasticity Low plasticity traits: _______
canalization
In Phenotypic plasticity High plasticity traits: ______
height, behavioral
(e.g., shyness or aggression): Norm of
reaction
The ability of a genotype to produce the same
phenotype regardless of environmental variability (no or low plasticity)
Canalization
The range
of possible phenotypes for a
given genotype
◦ Genes: boundaries/limits
◦ Environments: ranges
Norm of reaction
The complex, dynamic
process through which
environments shape
the expression of the
genetic code
Epigenetics
4 Ways of Genes-Environment Interaction
- Environmental factors can affect
whether genes are turned on or off - Environmental factors can alter the
magnitude of genetic effects on
development - Gene expression can affect how
people respond to children
(evocative effects) - A person’s genotype affects the
environments the person chooses to
experience
In a study of epigenetics on rats
and another
- Maze-dull rats:
Enriched > regular
environment.
Maze-bright rats:
Regular > impoverished
environment
2.Mother rats’ licking
(environment) could
activate glucocorticoid
receptor genes
(genotype)
in rat pups, which are
involved in stress
reactivity (phenotype)
how genotype interacts with
environment to determine
behavioral attributes (i.e.,
Phenotype)
Behavioral genetics
Amount of variability
in a trait that is attributed to
hereditary influence
Heritability
Methods to Determine Heritability (Main 2)
Family/Kinship studies
- Twin design:
Are identical twins (1.0) reared together more
similar than fraternal twins (0.5) reared together?
Identical/fraternal twins raised together vs. reared
apart? - Adoption design:
Are adopted children similar to biological parents
(0.5) or adopted parents (0)?
basic units of the
brain and nervous system
Neurons
connective
spaces between neurons
Synapses
Glia Cells _______________
also develop and produce ____
to protect and nourish the
____
surround and protect neurons
myelin, neurons
The Human Brain: Three Structures
Forebrain
Midbrian
Hindbrain
Forebrain: _____& ________ structures
Four Lobes:
_______
Cerebral Cortex + subcortical structures
1.Occipital lobe
2. Temporal Lobe
3. Parietal Lobe
4. Frontal lobe
Frontal Lobe is responsible for
movement, attention, impulses, thought
Occipital Lobe is mainly responsible for
Visual cortex
Parietal Lobe is mainy responsible for
touch, pain, body position
Temporal Lobe is mainy responsible for
smell, taste, hearing, language
Cerebral Lateralization: _______
BUT
Some function specified
Left Hemisphere: ____
Right Hemisphere: _____
Contralateral (hemispheres control opposite side of the body)
Left Hemisphere: Speech Language Comprehension, analysis, calculations, time, seqeuencing, word recognition
Right Hemisphere: Creativity, Spatial Ability, Context / Perception, Recognition of faces place objects etc
Main Subcortical structures in the brain are
- The Limbic System
- Hypothalamus and Thalamus
- Basil Ganglia
The Limbic system inclues the
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Cingulate cortex
The amygdala is responsible mainly for _________
emotions such as fear or anxiety
The hippocampus is responsible mainly for _________
Memory
Midbrain and Hindbrain consist of
Brain Stem
Cerebellum
The Cerebellum is mainly responsible for
coordination of movement (Balance), maintaining posture and balance, muscle tone, and motor learning
Brain Developmental Processes
Neurogenesis
Migration
Synaptogenesis
Synaptic pruning
Myelination
Proliferation of neurons through cell division: ___
_____ weeks to ____ weeks after
conception
Neurogenesis
3-4
18
Cerebral Cortex is the ________
Outer layer of cerebrum
In the brain stem, the pons is responsible for __
directing communication between the cerebellum and forebrain to help control breathing and circulation
In the brain stem, the medulla obiongata __
influences sleep and waking, respiration and circulation
Neurons migrate to their destinations, where they
grow and differentiate: ________
Migration
Neurons form synapses with other neurons: ______
Starts in the ________, with
rapid development right before and
after _____
Synaptogenesis
prenatal period, birth
the growth and
branching of dendrite “trees” : ____
Arborization
many more synapses in the brain are produced than will
actually be used: ____
Why? ____
Overproduction
helps speed up infants’ learning process (maybe genetic failsafe for adaptability)
Elimination of excess synapses (use it or lose it”): __
From ____ to late ____
Determined by ______
Timing varies by _____
Synaptic Pruning
prenatal period, adolescence
experience
regions
death of neurons
Apoptosis
Synaptogenesis and Synaptic Pruning calm down roughly around
adolescene / young adulthood
Insulating myelin forms around axons.
____ to early ______
Myelination
Prenatal, adulthood
Timing varies:
Sensory pathways
at birth
Frontal cortex
not completed until
adolescence or
young adulthood
the capacity of the brain to be shaped and affected by experience
Brain Plasticity
the normal wiring of the brain as a result of general experiences that human infants normally have.
Examples: Visual stimulation, Language exposure; Brain reorganization in atypical populations (e.g., deaf)
Experience-expectant plasticity
neural connections are created and
reorganized a function of individuals’
unique life experience and
circumstances
Examples: enriched vs. impoverished
environment; SES
Experience-dependent plasticity
Times when specific experiences result in permanent changes
in a child’s brain that cannot be altered
Critical Periods
Times in development when the
brain is most susceptible to
experiences, but changes
are still reversible
Sensitive Periods
Dandelion children
“Resilient” (low susceptibility):
able to cope with stress and
flourish despite environmental
challenges
Orchid children
“low
resilience” (H-susceptibility): wilt
when faced with environmental
challenges
Dandelion children & Orchid children
vary along a continuum
____________ describes Response to Maltreatment
High-active vs. Low- active allele:
ie; high vs. low suppression of
brain chemicals associated with aggression
Conception is defined as when
Father’s sperm + Mother’s ovum = create a Zygote
46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent
2 eggs fertilized
1 in 125 births
(higher with fertility drugs)
Dizygotic twins (fraternal)
1 egg fertilized and split
(1 in 250 births)
Monozygotic twins (identical)
Influences on Conception
Men’s reproductive health
◦ E.g., quality of sperm, stress, sleep disturbances,
depression, exposures to environmental pollutants and
toxins
Women’s reproductive health
◦ Timing Age, exposure to toxins
Timing
◦ Ovulation (day 14 of a menstrual cycle, but vary widely)
◦ Sperm lifespan (3 days)
3 Periods of Prenatal Development
Germinal Period
Embryonic Period
Fetal Period
(Preenatal) The Period of the _____ (Week 1 - 2)
Zygote
Germinal Period
(Preenatal) The Period of the _____ (Week 3 – 8)
Embryo
Embryonic Period
(Preenatal) The Period of the _____ (Week 9 – birth)
Fetus
Fetal Period
Germinal Period (The Period of Zygote)
0 – 2 weeks
Zygote (fertilized human egg):
▪ Cell division,
▪ Migration,
▪ Differentiation,
▪ Apoptosis
Time from conception to
implantation
About 25% survival rate
Embryonic Period (The Period of Embryo)
3rd – 8th weeks
Implantation
Gastrulation:
◦ Inner: Embryo
(e.g., neural tube)
◦ Outer: supporting
system: placenta;
umbilical cord;
Amniotic sac
Three layers of the embryo cells
- Ectoderm (Outer layer)
- Mesoderm (middle layer)
- Endoderm (middle layer)
Cells that form nervous system, sensory
organs, the nails, teeth, and the outer surface of
the skin in embryonic development
Ectoderm (Outer layer)
Cells that form muscles, bones, the
circulatory system, inner
layers of the skin,
internal organs in embryonic development
Mesoderm (middle layer)
Cells that form digestive and
respiratory systems in embryonic development
Endoderm (middle layer)
Principles of Embryo Development
A. Cephalocaudal development
B. Proximo-distal development
Principle of Embryo Development that explains how the head develops before the body, and arms before the legs
Cephalocaudal development
Principle of Embryo Development that explains how the Center of the body develops before outward
areas toward the periphery (middle first to out)
Proximo-distal development
Cell
Specialization
From stem cells to
specialized cells
Changes in cell shape, structure,
and composition to enable
specific functions
Age of viability
(22-28 weeks)
