Week 12

Question 1

Thinking beyond “here and now”
more rationally and
systematically about abstract
& hypothetical concepts

Answer 1

Formal-Operational Stage
(11/12 years and beyond)

Question 2

the ability to
reason logically and mentally
manipulate ideas and reflect on
situations that are not real or tangible
◦ E.g., hypothetical third eye
◦ E.g., living on a planet without plants

Answer 2

Abstract thinking

Question 3

Propositional thought

Answer 3

The ability to determine whether a set of propositions
(statements) are logical based on the wording of the statement, without having to experience the situation firsthand

“If A then B. A occurs, therefore B must follow.”
1. If you cut an apple with a knife/feather, you will get two
pieces
2. Mike cuts an apple with a knife/feather
3. How many pieces does he have?

Question 4

1. Hypothetical-deductive Reasoning
2. Two example of (HDR) Piagetian tasks

Answer 4

1. A systematic, scientific approach to problem solving in which they test
   hypotheses about variables that might influence an outcome to arrive at
   (deduce) a conclusion.
2. Combinations of liquids problem & Pendulum problem

Question 5

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

Answer 5

Contributions…
– Founded discipline of cognitive development
– Children’s active role
– Overview of changes in thinking
– practical implications

 Challenges…
– Stages like? Less consistent in real life.
– Performance or competence?
– Vague in processes and mechanisms.
– Valued little the social and cultural
influences

Question 6

____ perform better than _ on TOM tasks

Answer 6

Adolescents, children

Question 7

Point of View tasks

Answer 7

Teens’ improved ability to take
the perspective of others
◦ Perspective taking = RT (1st -
3rd ) decreased with age for
individuals 8-36-yr-olds
(Choudhury et al., 2006)
◦ Affective TOM more difficult
than cognitive TOM

Question 8

In Adolescent Egocentrism

Answer 8

Self-focus intensifies as a unique form of
egocentrism that makes it difficult for teens
to understand others’ perspectives

Question 9

Adolescents believe their feelings are vastly
unique and tend to exaggerate differences
between their own experiences (of high, special
importance) and those of others. (absorption in
their unique life stories)

Answer 9

Personal fable

Question 10

Adolescence: intense preoccupation
about what others think about them (ruminations),
exaggerated perception that others are attending
to everything they say and do

Answer 10

Imaginary audience

Question 11

moral reasoning task in
which individuals are presented with scenes of moral dilemmas and are
asked to make decisions about each dilemma.
 E.g., whether and why report a cheating in an exam? Stealing?
◦ Low level: personal consequences (e.g., get caught)
◦ High level: fairness and respect (e.g., respect others’ belonging)
 13-20-yrs-olds: Moral reasoning relates closely to cognitive development (e.g.,
cognitive flexibility, conceptual reasoning, verbal fluency)

Answer 11

So-moral tasks

Question 12

Does moral reasoning = moral
behavior?

Answer 12

Not always

Question 13

In Moral Theory, the idea Many
factors come together to determine how a person responds is representative of

Answer 13

Social domain theory (

Question 14

• Abstract thinking
• Propositional thinking
• Hypothetical‐deductive thinking
  are all cognitive achievements of the

Answer 14

Formal-Operational Stage
(11/12 years and beyond)

Question 15

Adolescent Language & Literacy: Vocabulary & Grammar

Answer 15

 Academic vocabulary & language (gain 10-15 words/day)

 Increasingly using complex grammatical constructions with embedded clauses (i.e., statements nested within other statements)

Question 16

Adolescent Language & Literacy: Reading and Writing

Answer 16

 Academic reading & writing skills:
◦ Unpack complex words (academic vocabulary)
◦ Understand complex sentences (grammar)
◦ Connect ideas (e.g., connectives such as
“although”, “however”)
◦ Track themes
◦ Appreciate organizational logic of texts

Question 17

present ideas thematically and
logically and tailor it to a specific audience

Answer 17

Writing

Question 18

Adolescent Academics: Gender Differences

Answer 18

 Data across 65 nations: Boys > girls in mathematics, girls > boys in
reading/literacy (Reilly, 2012)
◦ Gendered socialization
◦ Cultural messages & stereotypes: The brilliance & genius of male-dominated disciplines

• Boys are 3 times more likely to study physics and math;
  -** Girls are more likely to study chemistry and biology.**
• Less than 5% of girls pursue subjects such as engineering and technology

Question 19

Gender differences: Gendered Socialization

Answer 19

 Parents read more to girls than
boys
 Boys play more puzzles and
blocks (spatial and math skills
related to STEM)
 Boys spend more time playing
video games. Gaming supports
executive functioning
(attention and RT) related to
STEM achievements (Granic et
al., 2014)

Question 20

Gender Differences:
Cultural Messages & Stereotypes

Answer 20

◦ Men better at “analyzing systems”,
◦ Women better at “understanding emotions
( book “The essential Difference”, Baron-Cohen, 2024)

A**cademics perceived “innate talent” to be necessary for male-dominant fields. **Female-dominant fields require little innate talent
compared to male-dominant fields.

Question 21

Components of school engagement

Answer 21

Behavioral engagement (i.e., learning activities)
◦ Emotional engagement (i.e., affective attitudes and a sense of belonging to school)
◦ Cognitive engagement (i.e., self-regulated approach to learning, like effective strategies)

Question 22

________ relates to school
performance & future educational
ambitions

Answer 22

School engagement

Question 23

Academic motivation declines through
______

Answer 23

adolescence

-◦ Can lead to a snowball effect of declining grades
◦ High motivation maintains grades

Question 24

Motvation and Academics

Answer 24

Motivation predicts intelligence and standardized test scores
◦ Very high scores: High aptitude & motivation
◦ Low sores: low aptitude, motivation, or both
◦ Incentives improve low-scoring but not high-scoring
adolescents’ scores (Duckworth et al, 2011)
◦ Concept of “grit” (what’s needed to do well)

Question 25

Factors Explaining Motivation

Answer 25

1.Choice Matters
2.Goal orientation
3.Expectations for success
4.Test Anxiety
5.Task Value

Question 26

Motivation Factor: success ≠ enjoyment, but choice (choose to do) = higher motivation

Answer 26

Choice Matters

Question 27

Motivation Factor: Performance (outcome) vs. mastery (learning)

Answer 27

Goal orientation

Question 28

Motivation Factor: (“I believe I can do it well”) positively
predicts grade/performance

Answer 28

Expectations for success

Question 29

Motivation Factor: fear of failing
◦ Worry: negative thoughts “what if I fail?”
◦ Negative emotionality: negative feelings and
somatic symptoms

Answer 29

Test Anxiety

Question 30

Motivation Factor: Task Value

Answer 30

Subjective value a person assigns to a task, which depends on:
◦ Interest in the material: enjoyable/rewarding?
◦ Perceived attainment value of material: define
identify (e.g., “math whiz”)
◦ Utility value: useful for future life
◦ Cost: emotional cost (boredom, stress) and
time/effort demand

Question 31

Peers effects on individuals in the Academic content is “________”

Answer 31

“Bi-directional”
- Similarity of peers in academic engagement and performance mean peers can have positive or negative influences on academics

Question 32

Quality of student-teacher relationship in adolescence

Answer 32

◦ Generally declines from middle childhood
◦ Perceptions of teacher support relate to high
performance, but high control can backfire

Question 33

When victims fear confirming a negative belief
about their social group, they experience
anxiety and lowered performance

Answer 33

Stereotype threat

Question 34

Neighborhood-intervention

Answer 34

the children of families moved to wealthier neighborhoods more
likely to attend college, early more as adults and less likely to grow up to be single parentsNeighborhood-intervention