week 9, ch 13 Problem Solving and Intelligence

Question 1

Autistic Savant

Answer 1

someone with mental disability, yet with remarkable talent

Question 2

Problem Solving

Answer 2

A search of moves towards your goal.

Question 3

Problem Space

Answer 3

all sets of all states which may be reached in solving the problem. (eg chess move permutations).

Question 4

Heuristic

Answer 4

a problem-solving strategy which is efficient, but has an occasional error. In problem solving, use of an heuristic, narrows one’s search through the problem space, and hopefully still leads to the solution.

Question 5

Hill-Climbing Strategy

Answer 5

A Heuristic which always picks the path which seems to take you where you want to go. eg. “Which path leads to the mountain top?” This strategy will at every fork, pick the path which seems to head upwards BUT the chosen path may then meander out or actually start going downwards This strategy is oblivious to the reasoning that sometimes one must go backwards or sideways in order to achieve one’s ultimate goal.

Question 6

Means-End Analysis

Answer 6

type of heuristic which compares current -state, to goal-state adn describes the differences; ie what is necessary to turn current into goal? Breaks problem into multiple smaller components and what is needed at each step.

Question 7

Illustrations

Answer 7

can be another strategy that help solve problems

Question 8

Analogies

Answer 8

can also help to solve problems. Uses a previous solved problem to adapt its strategy to current situation.Uninstructed use of analogies is quite rare. In order for an analogy to be useful, a problem’s deeper structure must be understood. If can use analogies, tend to be much better at solving the problem. Experts use analogies frequently.

Question 9

TEST YOURSELF

1. Why do people seem to under-use analogies in problem solving?
2. What are some of the advantages that expert problem solvers have, compared to non experts?

Answer 9

1. Under-use of analogies tends to come from lack of deeper understanding of topic, unfamiliarity with technique, and lack of knowledge organisation which would facilitate analogies.
2. experts have vastly more domain knowledge, which is well ordered and has many links to other information, have solved many problems in past, memory arranged in higher-order units (processing is faster and cross-linked),

Question 10

TEST YOURSELF

1. Why do people seem to under-use analogies in problem solving?
2. What are some of the advantages that expert problem solvers have, compared to non experts?

Answer 10

1. Under-use of analogies tends to come from lack of deeper understanding of topic, unfamiliarity with technique, and lack of knowledge organisation which would facilitate analogies.
2. experts have vastly more domain knowledge, which is well ordered and has many links to other information, have solved many problems in past, memory arranged in higher-order units (processing is faster and cross-linked),

Question 11

Defining the problem

Answer 11

Sometimes problems are very easy to define, but sometimes whilst the end point is defined, the path there is quite obscured. It is best to break this into sub-parts to further define this. Experts tend to do this.

Question 12

Functional Fixedness

Answer 12

the tendency to be rigid in one’s thinking, in regards to an object’s function (eg, a box can be a container, but it may also be a platform etc). How an object is presented, can influence how we think about it and whether we are fixed or adaptive.

Question 13

Problem Solving Set

Answer 13

the collection of beliefs and assumptions a person makes about the problem and what can be feasibly done to solve it. Such a set usually stands us in good stead, but occasionally prevents us from being able to see a different approach as a valid solution.

Question 14

Creativity

Answer 14

readily producing novel solutions/expressions. Pre-requisites for creativity masters seem to be:
a) have great knowledge in certain area
b) have great skills in certain area
c) willingness to take risks
d) willingness to ignore criticism
e) ability to be able to tolerate ambiguous findings
f) inclination not to “follow the crowd”
Highly creative individuals tend to work hard on their work for the pure pleasure of it. Highly creative individuals have also tended to be in the right place at the right time (or is that just the ones who are famous and remembered????)

Question 15

Creativity according to Wallas

Answer 15

A) Preparation- gather info and some work on problem.
B) Incubation-set the problem aside but still doing some”unconscious” work on it.
C) Illumination-new idea emerges
D) Verification-confirming new idea works.
However, the process is arguable and often seems like a gradual process of many mini insights and much back and forth trying, failing and ree-trying.
Research is mixed on whether incubation (taking a breather) is better, or if better to keep plugging away.

Question 16

Convergent Thinking

Answer 16

An ability to see how seemingly distinct ideas might be connected. E.g.. test by given 3 words: find the word which can be linked to them all.
Both convergent and divergent may be utilised in creative thinking.

Question 17

Divergent Thinking

Answer 17

An ability to move thoughts into novel areas. E.g. test by asking “5 names taken at random from phone book: how many different ways can they be ordered? “ e.g. by number of syllables, by if even or odd number of vowels, whether 3rd letter is in the last third of the alphabet….

Question 18

TEST YOURSELF

1. What does research tell us about whether incubation truly helps problem solving?
2. What does research tell us is really going on in the “Aha” moment of illumination?

Answer 18

1. Research is divided on this one. Possibly a break is useful simply in allowing frustration dissipation. Either strategy may actually suit an individual better or worse.
2. An increase in gamma band brain activity. Also described as a feeling of warmth, by participants. This was the same whether turned out to be correct or not, still seeemed to have experienced progresss.

Question 19

IQ

Answer 19

Intelligence Quotient. Original measure of intelligence, designed by Alfred Binet. Tests various aspects of cognition. Originally was a ratio between “mental age” (level obtained on test) and actual age. Then x100 to get score. Modern forms of the test no longer expressed as a ratio. Tests verbal acuity, spatial acuity and mathematical acuity.

Question 20

Wechsler Intelligence Scale

Answer 20

For children (WISC) or Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), most common modern intelligence test. Also has various sub components. Tests general knowledge, vocabulary, comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory and speed of intellectual processing.

Question 21

Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test

Answer 21

Is an intelligence test which tests one’s ability to analyze figures and detect patterns. Designed to minimise requirement for verbal skills or background knowledge.

Question 22

Reliability

Answer 22

How consistent a measure is. To be highly reliable, should get approx same result when subsequently re-testing an individual.
Intelligence tests have a high test-retest reliability. Can accurately predict a person’s future IQ scores, from a childhood reading BUT things can change if substantive environmental change.

Question 23

Validity

Answer 23

Whether test measures what is supposed to. Recognised intelligence tests tend to have high validity, with scores having a .50 minimum correlation with grade point average. IQ can also be correlated to job performance and careers. Obviously other factors can influence performances and grades too. Higher IQ people are also less likely to end up in jail, or be a pregnant teen, or die from a motor vehicle accident, and more likely to be able to follow doctor’s instructions etc.
BUT obviously, IQ is never an absolute predictor of how life will unfold.

Question 24

Hierarchical Model of Intelligence

Answer 24

Suggests that we have a general intelligence (g) which contributes to abilities in all areas of intelligence, but also have category intelligences and specialised intelligences. Will tend to be strong across specialties within same category. Categories include (but are not limited to); linguistic ability, numerical ability and spatial ability. There are more than 80 areas of specialised intelligence recognised.

Question 25

Fluid Intelligence

Answer 25

Ability to deal with novel problems. Peaks in early adulthood, then declines.Thought linked to executive control. These skills can be somewhat trained and improved.
Alcohol, fatigue, depression can all adversely effect intelligence, but tends to impair fluid intelligence more.

Question 26

Crystallized Intelligence

Answer 26

acquired knowledge, and skills already used for dealing with prior problems. increases with age, then does decline when geriatric.
Crystalized and fluid intelligence are not the same, but are highly correlated, so if high in one, likely high in the other.

Question 27

g (general intelligence)

Answer 27

Various theories on how to specifically measure g, or what it is. Maybe involves faster processing time, greater working memory capacity, more rapid inspection time (time taken eg. to decide which line is longer), etc.

Question 28

The P-Fit Model

Answer 28

suggests that g occurs with greater integration between information from various sites, especially the parietal and frontal lobes (hence name P-fit)

Question 29

TEST YOURSELF

What’s the evidence that something like g, or general intelligence-exists?

Answer 29

Much correlation between fluid and crystallised intelligence, and also between spatial, verbal and mathematical intelligence, such that it seems that one is usually intelligent across many fields. Yet there are also cases of low intelligence generally, yet with profound ability in one specialised form of intelligence

Question 30

Practical intelligence

Answer 30

“Street Smarts”, or sophisticated reasoning in day-to-day settings.Is not measured by the usual intelligence tests. Thought some benefit in teaching to student strengths of practical ability, analytical ability or creativity.

Question 31

Rationality

Answer 31

Capacity for critically assessing information in the environment. (SOME very intelligent people seem to lack this skill.)

Question 32

Emotional intelligence

Answer 32

The ability to understand one’s own and others’emtions. Also to be able to control one’s emotions. There are tests to measure this. Higher scorers tend to have more leadership potential, create a more positive work atmosphere, and be rated as more caring and supportive by college friends.

Question 33

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Answer 33

Gardner argues for 8 types of intelligence; linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligence. Only first three are standardly tested in usual intelligence tests. Some of the evidence for this theory comes from the existence of savant syndrome.
Others argues against this theory, by saying “talent” is different to intelligence

Question 34

Bodily-kinesthetic inteligence

Answer 34

Ability to create and learn patterns of movement, in Theory of Multiple Inteligences.

Question 35

Naturalistic Intelligence

Answer 35

Ability to understand patterns in nature, In Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

Question 36

Savant Syndrome

Answer 36

Where a person has a very low intelligence score, yet is profoundly talented in some way.

Question 37

Roots of Intelligence

Answer 37

Nature or nurture? Both, and also they seem to depend on each other. Monozygotic twins raised separately tend to have same IQ score. Dizygotic twins raised together, more similar in IQ than regular siblings, and siblings more similar than non-related in differenthouseholds.
Living in poverty damages IQ but being removed from poverty can improve IQ. For identical twins living in poverty, the similarity in IQ is not as much.
It is thought that genetic influences on IQ rely on the right environment being present, In order to flourish.

Question 38

The Flynn Effect

Answer 38

IQ scores globally seem to be rising by 3 points per decade. The reasons are not clear. Effect seems to be stronger in fluid intelligence than crystallized, so is not just an education effect. Also, is is happening faster than could be attributed to genetic change.

Question 39

Will technology make us less intelligent?

Answer 39

Arguments have been made that as we rely on more gadgets (GPS, calculators etc), we will become less intelligent. The Flynn Effect refutes this. Also, a counter argument is that some skills are becoming obsolete, but we are gaining skills more necessary for the evolving, complex world.

Question 40

Race comparisons of intelligence

Answer 40

Many studies have been done, and have generally shown an average, slightly less intelligence for African Americans compared with White Americans. Simultaneously though, African Americans have tended to be poorer, lower incomes, poorer health care, and reduced opportunities. Thus it is theorized to be an environmentally-accountable difference.

Question 41

Stereotype Threat

Answer 41

The negative impact that a social stereotype may have on task performance. E.g.. fear/worry that I am going to prove the rule of being “stupid” etc and so performance is impaired due to anxiety (not lack of ability).

Question 42

Commercial “brain training”

Answer 42

These programs are likely to improve performance on tasks within the program, but there is little evidence of being helpful in any wider application