week 6 Chapter 9 Concepts Flashcards
Shareshevsky
Had a perfect memory, but could not recall deeper implications, and was distracted by recall. Therefore, found abstract thought very difficult.
Family Resemblance
Members of a category share typical features. Proposed by Wittgenstein. Yet is possible that no one member has all the typical characteristics. This further understanding of concepts allows for “exceptions to the rule”.
Definition of a Concept
The definition of a concept may be considered as setting the boundaries of what is included/excluded in a category. Yet whilst we can come up with a definition, it seems there are often going to be exceptions to it.
Prototype Theory
Considers the “centre” or “most typical” of a category. A prototype is based on averages of what encountered, so each person may have a different idea on eg “dog prototype”.
Graded Membership
Is more complex than “yes/no” to if something belongs to the type. Compares how close is to the protype, in a grading system.
Prototype Notion Testing Tasks
used to verify that the prototype notion seems sound.
a) eg “is this a dog”? Longer answer typically given for examples further from the prototype.
b) asked to rate eg “level of dogginess” people are fairly consistent with rating those as more and those as less, typical.
c) Asked to eg list dog breeds, tend to list those closest to prototype first, and further ones, last.
Basic level, Subordinate and Superordinate Classification
Basic level classification eg chair. Children usually learn basic labels first.
Superordinate classification eg furniture. Encompasses many basic levels, eg, chair, table, desk etc
Subordinate level classification eg office chair etc
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Exemplar
An exemplar is a specific example. Exemplar Based Reasoning is where use an exemplar to compare something against. Unlike a prototype, which is an average.
Categorizing via Resemblance
Depending on situation, might use either an exemplar or a prototype to consider how to categorize what seeing.
Each concept may have many elements, and which focus on as important, depends on task.
Typicality
The degree to which a particular case is typical for its type.
Complexity of Similarity/Dissimilarity
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Inter-related concepts and inferences
Seems that understanding of one concept involves a whole network of beliefs, cross-linked to many other concepts. eg to understand counterfeit, also understand money, government, crime etc.
Inferences are based on theories eg by being able to categorize Milo as a dog, can therefore suspect (and likely be right) that he barks, chases cats and begs for treats, because can apply general knowledge.If also learn something new, eg Milo is at risk of Parvovirus, might infer (likely correctly) that other dogs also at risk.
Different Profiles for Different Concepts
Most people have different concepts re how things come to be or endure etc dependent upon type eg artificial objects, geological forms, life forms etc. eg Children believe that with some modification, a toaster might be turned into a coffee pot, yet are able to recognise that one cannot turn a skunk into a raccoon.
Concepts and the Brain
fMRI has shown different areas of the brain are active when thinking about different concepts eg tools, living creatures etc.
Furthermore, parts of the sensory and motor cortices are activated when considering certain concepts, eg motor cortex when thinking about kicking etc.
Thus conceptual knowledge may be closely connected to interactive knowledge of such objects etc.
Grounded Cognition
Grounded Cognition (or Embodied Cognition)= the proposal that a body’s sensory and motor systems also play a part in the cognitive processes.
Anomia
Anomia = the inability to name something. Some with brain damage may lose ability to name living things, yet be able to name non-living things etc or vv. May lose ability to name fruits and vegetables, yet still be able to name animals etc.
The Memory System according to Collins & Quillian
This proposes a series of nodes with connections between. A branching tree of superordinate into basic and further into subordinate classifications etc. Informational knowledge relevant to each classification level, is connected to it.
ie knowledge connected to “animals’ level might be have hearts, eat food, breathe etc
Whereas knowledge connected to “cats” level might be have claws, purr etc.
By using Sentence Verification Tasks etc, one might test how many concept nodes one might need to “travel through”. ie expect longer times to verify a sentence for more nodes.
What is a Proposition?
The smallest unit of knowledge which may be assessed as true/false. eg. Children love candy eg. Susan likes blue cars. eg NOT PROPOSITION; cars eg NOT PROPOSITION;candy.
Propositional Network
The concept that maybe our concept nodes are linked by propositions, to others ie the nodes “dogs” and “meat” might be linked such that we have the proposition “dogs eat meat”.
Distributed Processing
The idea that a concept is not merely a node, but is itself a whole pattern of activated nodes across a network. (ie many nodes make a concept).
One activated network pattern (concept), may trigger others).
Connection Weights and Learning
Connection weight=the strength of activations amongst a pattern of nodes of activation. ie how rapidly/easily one concept causes activation of another.
Learning occurs via a process of adjustment eg the entire concept pattern which is “Wundt”, will, once know that he promoted “Introspection”, once activated, activate entire pattern of Introspection too.
Parallel Distributed Processing
The notion that within distributed processing, we might have multiple concepts (activation patterns) being employed simultaneously. eg “macbook” and “computer”.
Parallel Distributed Processing is used in computers, where it is able to detect patterns in fata, recognise and generalise from them, and learn variations on a pattern.
Stereotype
Whilst a Prototype is a summary of your experiences, a Stereotype is often acquired secondarily via social contexts etc. Stereotypes can be useful, but can also lead to prejudices and the damaging belief that all members of the group are alike.
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect
Most people are convinced that within their own group, everyone is wonderfully unique, yet contrarily also believe that everyone in the “out” group is the same.
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