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PYB204 - Perception and Cognition > Week 8 & 9 - Memory > Flashcards

Week 8 & 9 - Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Sensory memory

A
  • iconic (visual) memory
  • echoic (auditory) memory
  • modality specific
  • <1s
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2
Q

short-term (working) memory

A
  • central executive
  • visuospatial sketchpad
  • phonological loop
  • episodic buffer
  • 1-10s
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3
Q

long-term memory

A
  • declarative (explicit) memory
  • non-declarative (implicit) memory
  • > 10s
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4
Q

Memory systems

A
  • human memory consists of multiple subsystems
  • each of them is supported by its own behavioural and neural mechanisms
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5
Q

What does the sensory memory do?

A
  • registers information about the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time
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6
Q

Letter task for sensory memory

A
  • after brief exposure (e.g. 50ms), observers are asked to recall the letters
  • observers are able to report 3-6 letters
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7
Q

Findings for sensory memory task

A
  • many items are stored in memory intially
  • while they are still in memory, observers can attend to some of the items and report them
  • but they fade away quickly - that’s why observers can report only 3-6 items
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8
Q

What does short-term memory do?

A
  • an intermediate system in which information has to reside on its journey from sensory memory to long-term memory
  • has a limited capacity to hold information
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9
Q

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) theory

A

Proposes that as information is rehearsed in a limited-capacity short term memory, it is deposited in long-term memory

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10
Q

Memory span of short-term memory

A
  • the number of elements one can hold in short-term memory store
  • it is usually around seven
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11
Q

Is short-term memory distinct from long-term memory?

A
  • different capacity limits - 7+2 does not apply to long-term memory
  • damage to the medial temporal lobe (MTL) can cause severe amnesia (= impairment of long term memory) but it does not affect short-term memory
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12
Q

Working memory

A
  • a different way of characterising short-term memory
  • overcomes many of the limitations of the short-term memory model
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13
Q

Declarative memory (LTM)

A
  • memories for facts and events
  • you can explicitly remember these memories
  • also called explicit memory
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14
Q

Non-declarative memory

A
  • memories that you cannot explicitly retrieve (e.g. motor skills)
  • also called implicit memory
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15
Q

Memory encoding

A
  • the way information is processed affects how well it is encoded in long-term memory
  • when info is processed in a deeper and more meaningful manner it will be better encoded
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16
Q

depth of processing study Slamecka and Graf (1978)

A

Generate condition:
- what is a synonym of sea that begins with the letter o? (ocean)
- what is a rhyme of save that begins with the letter c? (cave)
Read condition:
- participants just read a rhyme pair or a synonym pair
Task:
recognition of the second word of a pair

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17
Q

depth of processing

A
  • synonym pairs were better recognised
  • the generate condition yielded better recognition performance
  • both are effects of deeper processing
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18
Q

Incidental vs intentional learning

A

depth of processing, not whether one intends to learn, can determine the amount of material remembered

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19
Q

Hyde and Jenkins (1973)

A

Group 1: judged whether a presented word contained letters e or g
Groupe 2: rated the pleasantness of the words
Half the participants were also instructed to memorise the words whereas the other half did not know that they would be tested on their memory for words

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20
Q

Results of Hyde and Jenkins (1973) study

A
  • The participants required to rate the pleasantness of the word recalled more words than those asked to check letters.
  • Intention had no effect on memory
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21
Q

Network of memory traces, Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971)

A
  • Participants were presented with pairs of words and nonwords
  • They judged whether both items in each pair were real English words
  • when two words in a pair were semantically related, participants made the judgement faster
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22
Q

Network of memory traces

A
  • memory traces are associated with each other (semantic and episodic info)
  • activation of memory traces spreads from items currently or recently attended along paths of a network
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23
Q

Interference effects - paired-associate learning experiment

A
  • two groups of participants learn two lists of paired associates
  • the experimental group usually performs worse when participants try to remember the A-B list
    (trying to memorise two overlapping lists (A-B and A-D) causes interference)
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24
Q

Interference effects

A
  • interference occurs only when one is learning multiple pieces of information that have no intrinsic relationship to one another
  • in contrast, interference does not occur when the information is relevant, and can even be reversed
  • learning relevant material does not interfere with a target memory
  • facilitates the target memory (elaborative processing)
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25
Q

Interference effects - famous people study

A

Participants learned little-known info about famous people
- single condition: a target fact only
- irrelevant condition: a target fact plus two unrelated facts
- relevant condition: a target fact plus two related facts
Task: participants were given names of the famous people and asked to recall the target facts

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26
Q

Results of famous people study

A

single fact and relevant facts had better immediate recall results. Relevant facts had the best recall results after 1 week

27
Q

two theories of forgetting

A

the decay theory
- memory traces decay as a function of time
The interference theory
- memory traces become less accessible due to increasing interference from competing memories
- as time goes by, you learn more new things, thereby causing more forgetting

28
Q

Forgetting study Nelson (1971)

A
  • participants learned, number-noun pairs (e.g. 43-dog)
  • 2-4 weeks later, they performed recall or recognition tests
  • they relearned the pairs they missed in test, but some of them were changed (e.g. 43-house)
  • they performed the memory test one more time
29
Q

Results from Nelson’s (1971) study

A
  • in the second test, unchanged pairs were recalled/recognised better than changed pairs
  • suggest that memory for missed pairs in the first test was not gone completely
30
Q

decay or interference?

A
  • it is likely that forgetting does not just mean memories are gone
  • rather, interference should explain how memories can appear to be forgotten
  • eventually, it is hard to decisively determine whether memories have decayed or they are just being interfered
31
Q

Retrieval

A
  • we make inferences at the time of memory retrieval
  • sometimes we are not even aware that we are making inferences rather than remembering what was actually studied
32
Q

Plausible retrieval

A

much of recall in real life involves plausible inference rather than exact recall

33
Q

Memory test for retrieval

A

exact: the heir married a lovely young women who had seemed to love him
plausible: the heir got his french fries from his family’s hamburger chain
false: the heir was very careful to eat only healthy food
Two conditions
- exact recall
- plausible retrieval

34
Q

memory test results

A

no delay: reaction time for exact recall was quicker than plausible retrieval
20 min delay: equal reaction time
2 day delay: plausible retrieval reaction time is quicker than exact recall

35
Q

Plausible retrieval

A
  • people often judge what plausibly might be true instead of trying to retrieve exact facts
  • exact recall and plausible retrieval might be two different types of remembering
  • plausible retrieval might seem inaccurate, but in real-world settings it often works well
36
Q

False memory

A
  • sometime we are required to clearly separate what we actually learned from our inferences (e.g. eyewitness testimony)
  • eyewitness are often inaccurate in the testimony they give
37
Q

False memory study, Loftus (1975)

A
  • participants (who had witnessed a traffic accident) were asked about the car’s speed when it passed a yield sign
  • however, there was no yield sign
  • many participants remembered having seen one
38
Q

source confusion

A

people confuse what they observe about an incident with what they learn from other sources

39
Q

non-declarative (implicit) memory

A

non-declarative memories cannot be consciously retrieved, but they manifest themselves in the form of improved performance

40
Q

procedural memory (skills and habits)

A
  • implicit knowledge about how to perform tasks
  • shows up in amnesic patients
  • MTL is not critical for procedural memory
  • basal ganglia (and cerebellum) are important
41
Q

procedural memory study, Berry and Broadbent (1984)

A
  • participants tried to control the output of a sugar factory by manipulating the size of the workforce
  • they saw a month’s sugar output of the factory (e.g. 6000 tons)
  • they chose the number of workers for the next month (e.g. 700)
  • they were presented with the next month’s output, and then chose the following months workforce
    Goal: keep the output between 8000 and 10000 tons
42
Q

Results of procedural memory task

A
  • 60 trials
  • participants become good at controlling output
  • they were unable to state what the rule was and that their responses were on the basis of “some sort of intuition” (implicit procedural memory)
43
Q

Weather prediction task

A
  • participants judged whether a given set of cards predicts sunshine or rain
  • they learned how to make correct predictions on a trial-and-error basis
  • a particular set of cards was associated with sunshine or rain either 75.57,43, or 25% of the time
44
Q

Weather prediction task participants

A
  • amnesic patients who had extensive MTL damage
  • parkinson’s disease patients who had damage on their basal ganglia but had intact MTL
  • neurologically-intact control participants
45
Q

weather prediction task results

A
  • controls and amnesic patients predicted the weather better in later trials
  • parkinsons patients did not show similar improvement
    When asked about the task:
  • amnesic patients showed no memory of the task (procedural but not declarative memory)
  • parkinson’s patients remembered performing the task very clearly (declarative but no procedural)
46
Q

Beilock et al (2002) study

A
  • right footed experienced and novice soccer players dribbled through a slalom course
    two conditions:
  • skill-focused attention: participants paid attention to the side of their foot (inside or outside) that touched the ball while dribbling
  • dual task: they listened to a sequence of words while dribbling and repeated a target word when it occurred
47
Q

results of Beilock et al (2002) study

A
  • when using participants non-dominant foot, dribbling time was shorter in the skill-focused condition than in the dual-task condition in both groups
  • when using dominant foot, dribbling time was:
  • Experienced players: dual task < skill-focused
  • Novice players: dual task > skill-focused
48
Q

Proceduralisation

A
  • Skills are initially learned in an explicit fashion
    – As you learn them well, they will be automated (proceduralised)
    – The proceduralised representation allows for proficient execution because this representation is formed through extensive learning
    – Conscious attention to skill execution can make performance worse because it interferes with the proceduralised representation
49
Q

Priming

A
  • An enhancement of the processing
    of a stimulus as a function of prior exposure to the stimulus
  • This enhancement takes place without
    conscious awareness
50
Q

Graf et al (1984) priming study

A

Amnesic patients and neurologically-intact control participants were tested
Task 1: word recall - participants learned a list of words and then recalled them
Task 2: word completion - they were presented with the first 3 letters of a word they had studies in task 1 and asked to make an english word using the first 3 letters
- task 2 measured the percentage of completed words that matched the words presented in task 1

51
Q

Results of Graf et al (1984) study

A
  • Amnesic patients performance on completion task showed that they maintained some memory for the studied words (couldn’t explicitly recall)
  • Priming is a form of memory, which is dissociable from declarative memory
  • priming is different from procedural memory - doesn’t require repetition
52
Q

Jacoby (1983) study

A

Participants learned words in three different ways
* Word alone (e.g., woman)
* In the presence of an antonym (e.g., man-woman)
* Generate the word as an antonym (e.g., man-?)
– Then their memory was tested in two different ways
* Word recognition
* Word identification

53
Q

results Jacoby (1983) study

A

explicit memory: generate had the highest rate of correct judgement followed by context and no context
implicit memory: no context had the highest rate of correct judgement followed by context and generate

54
Q

Explanation of results of Jacoby (1983) study

A
  • Declarative memory improved as the amount of elaborative processing increased, but non-declarative memory was best in the no-context condition
  • Priming was based on perceptual experience of seeing the words
55
Q

Neural mechanism of priming

A
  • There is often decreased activity in cortical
    regions that corresponds to greater priming (e.g. when a picture is recognised faster due to priming it produced decreased activation in visual areas)
  • When primed, less activation is needed to tap into memory representations
56
Q

Conditioning

A

Learning and remembering through association (e.g. Pavlov’s dogs)

57
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

a stimulus that inherently elicits a certain response

58
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

through associative learning, a previously neutral stimulus starts eliciting the same response

59
Q

Extinction

A

in extinction, the original association is
not extinguished; instead, it is just superseded by the newly created competing memory

60
Q

Appetitive Conditioning

A

– The conditional stimulus is paired with a pleasant reinforcing stimulus
– Positive behaviour modulation
* e.g., marketing and advertising

61
Q

D’Hooge et al (2017) conditioning study

A

– 111 participants viewed positive or negative scenes (happy or upset people) with either prominent or subtle brand placement
– After viewing the scenes, participants rated the brands on their likability

62
Q

Findings of D’Hooge et al (2017) study

A

Brands placed prominently in positive scenes
resulted in higher likability compared to those
placed in negative scenes

63
Q

Fear conditioning

A

– The conditioned stimulus is reinforced with a negative unconditioned stimulus
– Usually, things like a mild electric shock and a loud aversive noise (e.g., scream) are used as unconditioned stimuli
– This gives the basis for modern exposure therapies for treating conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and phobias

64
Q

exposure therapy

A
  • clients are gradually and repeatedly exposed to things that they fear
  • Through this repeated exposure in a safe
    environment, the clients acquire a new
    association between the things they are fearful of and a non-aversive outcome
  • The newly acquired association competes with and supersedes the conditioned response (i.e., extinction)

PYB204 - Perception and Cognition (10 decks)

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