Week 7- Memory Flashcards
Define memory
Memory is the process by which we take something we have observed (encountered) and convert it into a form we can store, retrieve and use
Outline Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Modal Model of Memory
Input
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Sensory memory (info lost)
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Short term memory (info lost)- output
Rehearsal: a control process
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Long term memory (info lost)
Each store differs in terms of capacity, encoding format and information duration
Why is information encoded and what type of information is encoded?
Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory
- Visual (picture)
- Acoustic (sound)
- Semantic (meaning)
Define capacity
Concerns how much information can be stored
Define duration
Refers to the period of time information can last in the memory store
Outline sensory memory
- Holds information about a perceived stimulus for a fraction of a second after the stimulus disappears
- One sensory register for every sensory system
Define iconic memory
Momentary storage of visual information
Define echoic memory
Memory storage of visual information
Define encoding format
A copy of input as it is received by the senses- image, sound, touch sensation
Outline capacity
- Large capacity
- 25+ stimuli stored simultaneously
Outline duration
- Very brief
- 1/4 to 2 seconds
What happens to information in sensory memory?
- Information that is attended is transferred to STM
- The remainder decays rapidly and is lost
Outline the capacity, duration and encoding format of short term memory
- Information from the sensory registers that is attended to moves into STM
- Capacity- holds a small amount of information (limited capacity of approximately 7 items) for a short period of time (limited duration of approximately 20-30 seconds)
- Duration- if material is rehearsed then it can be maintained in STM for a longer period (e.g. chanting a phone number until it is dialled = maintenance rehearsal)
- Encoding format- visual, auditory or semantic
Outline the capacity, duration and encoding format of long term memory
- Extracting information from LTM is called retrieval
- Capacity- LTM is theoretically limitless
- Duration- may persist over a lifetime (potentially limitless duration)
- Encoding format- the representation of facts, images, actions and skills
Summarise the evolution of memory models
- Memory is no longer thought of in terms of a serial processing model
- Memory is now thought to be comprised of a number of modules which are discrete but interdependent (parallel processing)
Define primacy effect
Better recall of words at beginning of list
Define recency effect
Better recall of words at end of list
Outline the serial position effect
- Rundus (1971), Murdock (1962)
- Participants learned a list that varied from 10-40 words
- Each word was presented for 1-2 seconds
- Free recall
- Number of rehearsals declined from beginning to end of list
- Primacy- more rehearsal of early items, thus they are more likely to enter LTM
- Memory also better for stimuli presented at end of list
- Recency- words at end of list are still in sensory memory of STM, are recalled first
Define declarative memory
Memory for facts and events which can be stated or declared
Define procedural memory
Memory for the ‘how to’ of skills or procedures
Define episodic memory
Memories of specific events which are rich in sensory experience
Define semantic memory
Memory for general concepts and knowledge
Define explicit memory
Memory that is expressed through conscious recollection
Define implicit memory
Memory that is expressed in behaviour but does not require conscious recollection
Define recall
The spontaneous conscious recollection of information from LTM
Define recognition
The identification of something previously seen or learned
Outline semantic network theory including the role of spreading activation
- Concepts are connected based on meaning and relationships that you have learned through your experience
- Spreading activation- activation spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node
- Activation decreases with distance from the activated node
Define semantic priming with examples
- Refers to the responses to a target word
- E.g. the dog is responded to faster if preceded by a semantically related word such as cat, in comparison to a semantically unrelated word such as carrot
Describe the two forms of shallow processing
- Structural processing is when we encode only the physical qualities of something e.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look
- Phonemic processing is when we encode its sound
Outline shallow processing
- Shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold something in the STM) and leads to fairly short term retention of information
Outline what deep processing involves
- Semantic encoding, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning
- Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc) of information and leads to better recall
Describe three ways to enrich semantic encoding
- Elaboration- linking stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
*Palmere et al (1983) had participants read essays containing 32 paragraphs. Paragraphs had:
-1 main idea, 0 examples
-1 main idea, 1 example
-1 main idea, 2 examples
-1 main idea, 3 examples
*Recall main ideas
*Inclusion of more examples = better recall of main ideas
*Demonstrates the effects if elaboration on recall - Visual imagery- create visual images to represent to be remembered words
*Useful for concrete words (e.g. dog)
*Not useful for abstract words (e.g. truth) - Self referent encoding- deciding how or whether information is personally relevant or meaningful
*Rodgers, Kuiper and Kirker (1977)
-Showed participants trait adjectives (timid, shy, loveable etc)
-Questions to induce self referent encoding (does this word apply to you personally)
-Results: self referent encoding facilitated better recall of adjectives
Outline encoding specificity of principle
- The ease of retrieval of a memory depends on a match between the way information was encoded and how it is later retrieved
-There is poor recall if shallow learning is examined using a deep processing technique
-Student who studies using multiple choice items and then takes an essay exam will not do very well
Define context dependent memory
Information is easier to recall when it is encoded and retrieved in the same context.
The same context provides retrieval cues which facilitate recollection.
Define mood (state) congruent memory
Information is easier to recall when it is encoded and retrieved in the same emotional state.
The same emotional state provides retrieval cues which facilitate recollection.
How do schemas affect the way people remember things?
- By influencing the way information is encoded
- By shaping the way information is reconstructed
Define working memory and how it is used
- Working memory refers to the temporary storage and processing of information is used to:
-Solve problems
-Respond to environmental demands
-Achieve goals - Active memory system
Outline Baddley and Hitch’s working memory model
- Visuospatial memory store (visuospatial sketchpad)- a temporary image (20-30 seconds) that stores information about the location and nature of objects
- Verbal memory store (phonological loop)- involves storage of verbal items (equates to STM). It has limited capacity
- Central executive- controls the flow and processing of information (limited capacity)
Summarise the neuropsychology of working memory
- Working memory is thought to be controlled by the prefrontal cortex
- Verbal and visual working memory activate different regions of the cortex. This demonstrates the independence of different components of working memory
Outline working memory in relation to LTM
Evidence supporting a distinction between working memory and LTM:
- Working memory is easily accessed, but is limited in capacity
- Patients with LTM deficit: person shows normal working memory, but cannot transfer information to LTM
- Patients with a working memory deficit: a memory span of just 2 digits, but normal LTM
How is chunking used?
- Using knowledge from LTM to increase the capacity of working memory
E.g. NTNSWACTWA
NT NSW ACT WA
- People with knowledge of Australian states will be able to use this knowledge from their LTM to chunk the letter string, making it easier to keep in working memory
What are the seven sins of memory?
- Transience- memories fade with time
- Absent mindedness- need to pay attention to remember
- Misattribution- source amnesia
- Suggestibility- thinking we remember
- Bias- distortions in recall
- Persistence- recurring memories
- Forgetting- inability to remember
Outline the accuracy of LTM
- Memory is subject to errors and biases
-Memory can be primed
-Memory is altered by emotional factors
*Eyewitness testimony
-Recall of events can be manipulated by asking leading questions e.g. “did you see a/the broken taillight?”
Define forgetting
The inability to recall previously learned information
Outline the three theories of forgetting
- Decay theory- memory is like a fading neutral trace that is weakened with disuse
- Interference theory- conflict between new and old memories
-Proactive interferences: old interferes with new
-Retroactive interference: new interferes with old - Motivated forgetting- implies that forgetting can avoid painful memories
