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Intro to Psych > Week 7- Memory > Flashcards

Week 7- Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Define memory

A

Memory is the process by which we take something we have observed (encountered) and convert it into a form we can store, retrieve and use

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2
Q

Outline Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Modal Model of Memory

A

Input
|
Sensory memory (info lost)
|
Short term memory (info lost)- output
Rehearsal: a control process
| |
Long term memory (info lost)

Each store differs in terms of capacity, encoding format and information duration

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3
Q

Why is information encoded and what type of information is encoded?

A

Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory

  1. Visual (picture)
  2. Acoustic (sound)
  3. Semantic (meaning)
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4
Q

Define capacity

A

Concerns how much information can be stored

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5
Q

Define duration

A

Refers to the period of time information can last in the memory store

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6
Q

Outline sensory memory

A
  • Holds information about a perceived stimulus for a fraction of a second after the stimulus disappears
  • One sensory register for every sensory system
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7
Q

Define iconic memory

A

Momentary storage of visual information

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8
Q

Define echoic memory

A

Memory storage of visual information

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9
Q

Define encoding format

A

A copy of input as it is received by the senses- image, sound, touch sensation

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10
Q

Outline capacity

A
  • Large capacity
  • 25+ stimuli stored simultaneously
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11
Q

Outline duration

A
  • Very brief
  • 1/4 to 2 seconds
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12
Q

What happens to information in sensory memory?

A
  • Information that is attended is transferred to STM
  • The remainder decays rapidly and is lost
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13
Q

Outline the capacity, duration and encoding format of short term memory

A
  • Information from the sensory registers that is attended to moves into STM
  • Capacity- holds a small amount of information (limited capacity of approximately 7 items) for a short period of time (limited duration of approximately 20-30 seconds)
  • Duration- if material is rehearsed then it can be maintained in STM for a longer period (e.g. chanting a phone number until it is dialled = maintenance rehearsal)
  • Encoding format- visual, auditory or semantic
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14
Q

Outline the capacity, duration and encoding format of long term memory

A
  • Extracting information from LTM is called retrieval
  • Capacity- LTM is theoretically limitless
  • Duration- may persist over a lifetime (potentially limitless duration)
  • Encoding format- the representation of facts, images, actions and skills
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15
Q

Summarise the evolution of memory models

A
  • Memory is no longer thought of in terms of a serial processing model
  • Memory is now thought to be comprised of a number of modules which are discrete but interdependent (parallel processing)
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16
Q

Define primacy effect

A

Better recall of words at beginning of list

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17
Q

Define recency effect

A

Better recall of words at end of list

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18
Q

Outline the serial position effect

A
  • Rundus (1971), Murdock (1962)
  • Participants learned a list that varied from 10-40 words
  • Each word was presented for 1-2 seconds
  • Free recall
  • Number of rehearsals declined from beginning to end of list
  • Primacy- more rehearsal of early items, thus they are more likely to enter LTM
  • Memory also better for stimuli presented at end of list
  • Recency- words at end of list are still in sensory memory of STM, are recalled first
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19
Q

Define declarative memory

A

Memory for facts and events which can be stated or declared

20
Q

Define procedural memory

A

Memory for the ‘how to’ of skills or procedures

21
Q

Define episodic memory

A

Memories of specific events which are rich in sensory experience

22
Q

Define semantic memory

A

Memory for general concepts and knowledge

23
Q

Define explicit memory

A

Memory that is expressed through conscious recollection

24
Q

Define implicit memory

A

Memory that is expressed in behaviour but does not require conscious recollection

25
Q

Define recall

A

The spontaneous conscious recollection of information from LTM

26
Q

Define recognition

A

The identification of something previously seen or learned

27
Q

Outline semantic network theory including the role of spreading activation

A
  • Concepts are connected based on meaning and relationships that you have learned through your experience
  • Spreading activation- activation spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node
  • Activation decreases with distance from the activated node
28
Q

Define semantic priming with examples

A
  • Refers to the responses to a target word
  • E.g. the dog is responded to faster if preceded by a semantically related word such as cat, in comparison to a semantically unrelated word such as carrot
29
Q

Describe the two forms of shallow processing

A
  • Structural processing is when we encode only the physical qualities of something e.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look
  • Phonemic processing is when we encode its sound
30
Q

Outline shallow processing

A
  • Shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold something in the STM) and leads to fairly short term retention of information
31
Q

Outline what deep processing involves

A
  • Semantic encoding, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning
  • Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc) of information and leads to better recall
32
Q

Describe three ways to enrich semantic encoding

A
  1. Elaboration- linking stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
    *Palmere et al (1983) had participants read essays containing 32 paragraphs. Paragraphs had:
    -1 main idea, 0 examples
    -1 main idea, 1 example
    -1 main idea, 2 examples
    -1 main idea, 3 examples
    *Recall main ideas
    *Inclusion of more examples = better recall of main ideas
    *Demonstrates the effects if elaboration on recall
  2. Visual imagery- create visual images to represent to be remembered words
    *Useful for concrete words (e.g. dog)
    *Not useful for abstract words (e.g. truth)
  3. Self referent encoding- deciding how or whether information is personally relevant or meaningful
    *Rodgers, Kuiper and Kirker (1977)
    -Showed participants trait adjectives (timid, shy, loveable etc)
    -Questions to induce self referent encoding (does this word apply to you personally)
    -Results: self referent encoding facilitated better recall of adjectives
33
Q

Outline encoding specificity of principle

A
  • The ease of retrieval of a memory depends on a match between the way information was encoded and how it is later retrieved
    -There is poor recall if shallow learning is examined using a deep processing technique
    -Student who studies using multiple choice items and then takes an essay exam will not do very well
34
Q

Define context dependent memory

A

Information is easier to recall when it is encoded and retrieved in the same context.

The same context provides retrieval cues which facilitate recollection.

35
Q

Define mood (state) congruent memory

A

Information is easier to recall when it is encoded and retrieved in the same emotional state.

The same emotional state provides retrieval cues which facilitate recollection.

36
Q

How do schemas affect the way people remember things?

A
  • By influencing the way information is encoded
  • By shaping the way information is reconstructed
37
Q

Define working memory and how it is used

A
  • Working memory refers to the temporary storage and processing of information is used to:
    -Solve problems
    -Respond to environmental demands
    -Achieve goals
  • Active memory system
38
Q

Outline Baddley and Hitch’s working memory model

A
  • Visuospatial memory store (visuospatial sketchpad)- a temporary image (20-30 seconds) that stores information about the location and nature of objects
  • Verbal memory store (phonological loop)- involves storage of verbal items (equates to STM). It has limited capacity
  • Central executive- controls the flow and processing of information (limited capacity)
39
Q

Summarise the neuropsychology of working memory

A
  • Working memory is thought to be controlled by the prefrontal cortex
  • Verbal and visual working memory activate different regions of the cortex. This demonstrates the independence of different components of working memory
40
Q

Outline working memory in relation to LTM

A

Evidence supporting a distinction between working memory and LTM:

  • Working memory is easily accessed, but is limited in capacity
  • Patients with LTM deficit: person shows normal working memory, but cannot transfer information to LTM
  • Patients with a working memory deficit: a memory span of just 2 digits, but normal LTM
41
Q

How is chunking used?

A
  • Using knowledge from LTM to increase the capacity of working memory

E.g. NTNSWACTWA
NT NSW ACT WA

  • People with knowledge of Australian states will be able to use this knowledge from their LTM to chunk the letter string, making it easier to keep in working memory
42
Q

What are the seven sins of memory?

A
  • Transience- memories fade with time
  • Absent mindedness- need to pay attention to remember
  • Misattribution- source amnesia
  • Suggestibility- thinking we remember
  • Bias- distortions in recall
  • Persistence- recurring memories
  • Forgetting- inability to remember
43
Q

Outline the accuracy of LTM

A
  • Memory is subject to errors and biases
    -Memory can be primed
    -Memory is altered by emotional factors

*Eyewitness testimony
-Recall of events can be manipulated by asking leading questions e.g. “did you see a/the broken taillight?”

44
Q

Define forgetting

A

The inability to recall previously learned information

45
Q

Outline the three theories of forgetting

A
  • Decay theory- memory is like a fading neutral trace that is weakened with disuse
  • Interference theory- conflict between new and old memories
    -Proactive interferences: old interferes with new
    -Retroactive interference: new interferes with old
  • Motivated forgetting- implies that forgetting can avoid painful memories

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