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Intro to Psych > Week 11- Thought and Language > Flashcards

Week 11- Thought and Language Flashcards

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1
Q

What is linguistic relativity hypothesis?

A
  • Thoughts are shaped by language
  • The language you speak limits your thoughts
  • Not entirely true
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2
Q

Define thought

A
  • Thought is an extension of perception and memory
  • We form mental representations
  • We recall mental representations using memory
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3
Q

Define thinking

A

Thinking is manipulating mental representations (images or words) for a purpose

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4
Q

What is the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in thinking?

A

Central role in working memory and explicit manipulation of representations through our conscious thought

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5
Q

What is the role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in thinking?

A

Role in the use of emotional reactions to guide decision making and behaviour

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6
Q

Define mental models, giving examples

A
  • Mental models involve a representation that describes, explains or predicts how things work
  • Examples include:
    -Our understanding of how cars work
    -Our model of a neuron
    -Our model of memory systems (STM, LTM)
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7
Q

Define concept, giving an example

A
  • A mental representation of a category
    -‘Cat’: a small, furry, four-legged, independent animal
  • Objects are classified on the basis of their properties
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8
Q

Define categories and categorisation

A
  • Categories: groupings based on common properties
  • Categorisation: how we assign an object to a concept
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9
Q

Outline the process of categorisation

A
  • Categorisation involves recognising an object as a member of a category
  • We categorise objects by:
    -Comparison with a list of defining features (qualities that are essential for membership of the category)
    -Similarity/dissimilarity to prototypes (an abstraction across many instances of a category)
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10
Q

Define prototypes

A
  • The amount of time it might take us to recognise that a bird is a bird (for example) will take longer if it differs too much from our prototype
  • A prototype is an idea we have or an abstraction that’s been formed using the shared features or functions of an object across many instances
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11
Q

Outline how concepts can represent information, using a laptop as an example

A
  • Shape
  • Defining features- electronic device, has a particular architecture or operating design, uses digital processor to perform computations
  • Characteristic features- has a keyboard, has a screen, can be used for word processing and web browsing, can store information on hard drive or USB device
  • Exemplars- Apple iMac, IBM platinum
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12
Q

Outline how concepts are hierarchical

A
  • Many concepts are hierarchically ordered, with sub concepts of varying levels of abstraction
  • Efficient thinking requires choosing the right level of abstraction
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13
Q

Outline the (3) levels of categorisation

A
  • Basic- broadest, most inclusive, ‘natural’ level, quickest response e.g. bird
  • Subordinate- more specific than basic e.g. magpie
  • Superordinate- more abstract than basic, members share few specific features, level of metaphor
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14
Q

Define reasoning

A

The process by which people generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs

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15
Q

Define inductive reasoning

A
  • Reasoning from specific observations to general propositions
  • Relies heavily on probabilities
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16
Q

Define deductive reasoning giving an example

A
  • Drawing a conclusion from a set of assumptions or premises (e.g. syllogisms)
  • The conclusion drawn is true if the premise is true and the reasoning logical
  • Specific premises are given, for example: the dog always barks when there is someone at the door, and the dog barked
  • Does the premise allow a particular conclusion to be drawn: so there is someone at the door
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17
Q

Define syllogism, giving an example

A
  • A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions

-Premise 1: all 30 year old women are blonde
-Premise 2: Holly is a 30 year old woman
-Conclusion: Holly is blonde
-The reasoning is correct, are the premises logical?

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18
Q

Define belief bias, giving an example

A
  • Conclusions that concur with real world knowledge are judged to be valid
    -If my finger is cut, then it bleeds
    -My finger has blood on it
    -Therefore my finger is cut
  • The logical premises here are overlooked
  • Relying on real world knowledge is less effortful than formal reasoning
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19
Q

Outline the process of inductive reasoning, giving an example

A
  • A conclusion is made about the probability of some state of affairs based on the available evidence and past experiences
    -Menou is a cat
    -Menou likes to take showers
    -Therefore all cats like to take showers
  • Generalising from specific instance to an entire category
  • Everyday thinking often involves inductive processes
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20
Q

Define and outline the process of analogical reasoning

A
  • Analogical reasoning is the process by which people understand a novel situation in terms of a familiar one
  • The novel and familiar situations must each contain a number of elements that can be mapped onto each other
  • We use analogies to categorise novel situations, make inferences and solve problems
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21
Q

Define relational similarity, giving an example

A
  • In many analogies, the objects in the analogy are not actually similar at all, their similarity is purely at a relational level
  • E.g. analogy of a snake biting its own tail and circular molecular structure of Benzene (carbon atoms arranged circularly)
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22
Q

Define surface similarity, giving an example

A
  • Frequently, the objects in the analogy bear some resemblance to one another, called surface similarity
  • Similarity of appearance can support analogical mapping
  • E.g. velcro, following an observation of burdock burs stuck to dog fur. Surface similarity of hairs coating the burdock furs and the furs on velcro support surface similarity of an effective sticking mechanism
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23
Q

Outline analogical reasoning

A
  • Both relational and surface similarity affect analogical reasoning
  • An analogy is mapping from one structure referred to as the base/source to another, referred to as the target in order to problem solve
  • Taking something we already know and are familiar with and applying that to a novel situation or problem, to work through and problem solve
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24
Q

What are the benefits of analogous thinking?

A
  • We can use analogous reasoning to make conclusions about things we have not actually seen or experienced first hand

-Called transitive inference
Tom is happier than Bill. Bill is happier than Mike. Who is happiest?

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25
Q

Define problem solving and outline the process

A
  • Problem solving refers to the process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal

Initial state (a problem) > Operators (actions performed to solve the problem) > Goal state (no problem)

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26
Q

Define the two ways in which problems may vary by definition

A
  • Well-defined problems are ones where the initial state, goal state and operators are easily determined (e.g. stats problem)
  • Ill-defined problems occur when both the information needed to solve the problem and the criteria for determining when the goal state has been met are vague (e.g. leader tasked with ‘improving morale’)
27
Q

Why are problem solving strategies needed?

A

Problem solving strategies would be a lengthy and difficult process if individuals had to try every potential operator in every situation so need problem solving strategies

28
Q

Define algorithms

A

Systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a (simple) problem

29
Q

Define mental simulation

A

The mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem

30
Q

Define means-end analysis

A
  • Involves identifying the principle difference between initial and goal state then taking actions to reduce those differences
  • Often this strategy involves dividing the problem into subgoals and taking intermediate steps to solution
31
Q

Define functional fixedness

A

Functional fixedness is the tendency to fixate on a function for an object and to ignore other possible uses

32
Q

Define mental set

A

Mental set is the tendency to keep using the same problem solving techniques that have been successful in the past

33
Q

Define confirmation bias

A

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for confirmation of what we already believe

34
Q

Define decision making

A

The process by which an individual weighs the pros and cons of different alternatives in order to make a choice

35
Q

Define explicit cognition

A

Explicit cognition involves conscious manipulation of mental representations

36
Q

Define implicit cognition

A

Implicit cognition involves the unconscious:

-Behaviourists suggest that people can learn, generalise and discriminate stimuli without conscious thought

-Psychodynamic theory suggests that unconscious motives and emotions impact on problem solving and decision making

37
Q

Define heuristics

A

Cognitive shortcuts (rules of thumb) for selecting amongst alternatives, without carefully considering each one (sometimes irrational)

38
Q

Define representative heuristic

A

Where we match an object to its category but ignore information about its probability of occurring

39
Q

Define availability heuristic

A

We decide that the events that we can easily recall are common and typical

40
Q

Define bounded rationality

A
  • People who are rational within the bounds imposed by their environment, goals and cognitive resources
    -We do not always have complete information
    -Out time is often limited
    BUT
    -We make good enough decisions, rather than optimal decisions
41
Q

List the units of language

A
  • Sounds- phonology
  • Organisation- syntax
  • Meaning- semantics
  • Implied meaning- pragmatics
42
Q

Define phonemes, with an example

A
  • Smallest units of sound that constitute speech e.g. th, s, a
  • Basic building blocks of speech sounds
  • Humans can produce about 100
  • Different languages use different phenomes e.g. French soft r’s do not exist in English
43
Q

Define morphemes, with an example

A

Smallest units of meaning e.g. anti-, house, the, -ing

44
Q

Define phrases, with an example

A

Groups of words that act as a unit and convey a meaning e.g. in the den, the rain in Spain, ate the lolly

45
Q

Define sentences, with an example

A

Organised sequences of words that express a thought or intention e.g. the house is old. Did you get milk?

46
Q

Define phonology

A

The structure of sounds that can be used to produce words in a language

47
Q

Define syntax

A

The rules for combining different types of words in sentences

48
Q

Define aphasia, including two types

A
  • Aphasia- a disruption of language due to brain damage
  • Broca’s aphasia- production
  • Wernicke’s aphasia- comprehension
49
Q

Define semantics

A

The meaning of a word or sentence

50
Q

Define propositional representations

A

Mental sentences that represent the unambiguous meaning of assertion

51
Q

Define linguistic relativity principle, and state the idea’s source

A
  • The idea that the complexity of the number of words in our language dictates the complexity of ideas that we can have
  • Source of work- work of Franz Boas, noting that there are many different words for snow in Inuit, each describing a different type of snow
52
Q

Define pragmatics

A
  • The ways that language conveys meaning indirectly by implying rather than asserting
    -The basis of metaphors and some humour
53
Q

What does nonverbal communication include?

A
  • Vocal intonation
  • Body language (crossed arms)
  • Gestures (often involving the hands)
  • Physical distance
  • Facial expressions
  • Touch
  • Nonverbal vocalisations (throat clearing)
54
Q

Define discourse

A

The way people ordinarily speak, hear, read and write in interconnected sentences

55
Q

How to people represent discourse at multiple levels?

A
  • Exact wording
  • Gist or general meaning
  • Suspended reality (different time or place)
  • Communication (storytelling, idea sharing)
  • Conversation
56
Q

State the two theories for language development

A
  • Empiricism/nurture
    -Language is entirely learned
  • Nativism/nature
    -Some aspects of language are innate
    -Language acquisition device (LAD) by Chomsky
57
Q

Outline the case for nurture in language development

A
  • Skinner (a behaviourist) argued that children imitate the utterances of their parents
  • Skinner suggests that children receive differential reinforcement for speech sounds
  • Parents use positive reinforcement and shaping to teach language
58
Q

Outline the case for nature in language development

A
  • Chomsky argued that language acquisition appears to be universal across culture (could not be accounted for by learning)
  • Children can use complex grammatical rules long before they develop into other mental processes (mathematics)
  • Language acquisition device (LAD)- an innate set of neural structures for acquiring language
59
Q

Outline the process of typical language development (3 months - 4 years)

A
  • 3 months- random vocalisations
  • 6 months- more distinct babbling
  • 1 year- babbling that resembles the typical sounds of the family’s language; probably one or more words including “mamma”; language comprehension much better than production
  • 1 and a half years- can say some words (mean about 50), mostly nouns; no phrases
  • 2 years- speaks in two word phrases
  • 2 and a half years- longer phrases and short sentences with some errors and unusual constructions. Can understand much more
  • 3 years- vocabulary of about 1000 words; longer sentences with fewer errors
  • 4 years- close to adult speech competence
60
Q

How fast does vocabulary grow?

A

Doubles every two years up to grade five

61
Q

Define over-extension

A

Referring to everything as one type of that thing e.g. every animal is “kitty”

62
Q

Define under-extension

A

Referring to things too broadly, e.g. “animal” with no specific identification such as “dog” for any animal

63
Q

Describe what the critical period for language learning is

A
  • Critical periods assume that an organism must develop a function within a limited time frame or it will not develop at all
  • Children easily learn second languages, adults have great difficulty
  • Isolated children have language impairments
  • After age 12, native fluency is difficult to achieve

Intro to Psych (10 decks)

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