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Intro to Psych > Week 10- Learning > Flashcards

Week 10- Learning Flashcards

1
Q

Define learning

A
  • Any enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience
    -Change/adaptation
    -Enduring
    -Necessary for survival
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2
Q

What is the key issue with learning?

A

Learning cannot be observed directly, it is inferred from behaviour that is observed

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3
Q

Define reflex, with an example

A

A behaviour that is automatically elicited by an environmental stimulus
-E.g. a blink when something rapidly approaches your eye

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4
Q

Define habituation

A

The reduction in response strength of a reflex over repeated presentations of the stimulus

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5
Q

Outline classical conditioning and what this entails

A
  • The learning of anew association between two previously unrelated stimuli
  • We learn that a stimulus predicts a certain event and we respond accordingly
  • In classical conditioning, all responses are reflexes or autonomic responses that are elicited by environmental stimuli
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6
Q

Define unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

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7
Q

Define unconditioned response (UCR)

A

An unlearned reaction to an unconditional stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning

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8
Q

Define conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

A previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response

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9
Q

Define conditioned response (CR)

A

A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

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10
Q

Define acquisition and the process required for this to occur

A
  • The process of acquiring the new association between the stimuli and the response
  • It takes multiple instances of two things being paired together for the organism to actually learn that paired association and transfer the reaction onto what was the neutral stimulus
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11
Q

What can classical conditioning change?

A
  • Behaviour
    -Preference
    -Avoidance
  • Emotions
    -“Liking”
    -Arousal
  • Physiology
    -Heart rate
    -Skin conductance
    -Muscle tension
  • Cognitions
    -Law of prediction
    -Formulation of plans to cope with UCR
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12
Q

Outline conditioned taste aversion with an example

A
  • A learned aversion to a taste associated with an unpleasant feeling, usually nausea

UCS (toxic event) > UCR (nausea)
NS (taste of prawns) > UCR (nausea)
+ UCS (toxic event)
CS (taste of prawns) > CR (nausea)

-Behaviour: avoids prawns
-Emotions: “I hate prawns”
-Physiology: heart rate, skin conductance, muscle tension
-Cognitions: law of prediction. “If I eat prawns, I will be sick”

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13
Q

Outline the three temporal relations of the acquisition phase of classical conditioning

A
  • Simultaneous conditioning- UCS and CS begin and end together
  • Forward conditioning- CS begins just before UCS
  • Backward conditioning- UCS begins before CS begins
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14
Q

Define and outline the process of extinction

A
  • If the unconditioned response is not presented the conditional stimulus will gradually lose its ability to elicit a conditional response
  • Time taken to extinguish CR depends on the strength of the conditioned bond when extinction begins
  • The weakening of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus
  • Extinction is not an unlearning of the conditioned response. It is a learned inhibition of responding
  • Important implications for treatment of phobias
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15
Q

Outline the use of extinction to treat phobias

A
  • Behavioural treatment for phobias is based on extinction
  • As the fear is so strong this is usually done in steps through systematic desensitisation
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16
Q

Outline spontaneous recovery

A
  • If there is a break after extinction, a conditional response will be shown upon another presentation of the conditioned stimulus
  • This ‘spontaneous recovery’ response will typically be smaller than before extinction
  • The longer the delay, the larger the spontaneous recovery
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17
Q

Outline renewal effect

A

If a CR extinguished in an environment different to the acquisition environment, then the extinguished response will re-appear when the animal is returned to the acquisition environment

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18
Q

Define unlearning vs suppression

A

Spontaneous recovery and renewal effects suggest that extinction suppresses a CR but CR is not unlearned

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19
Q

Outline stimulus generalisation

A
  • Organism that has learned a response to the specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar, for example:
    -Pavlov’s dogs respond to similar tones
    -Fear of a specific bridge = fear of bridges
    -Little Albert (Watson and Rayner)
  • Generally adaptive
  • A conditioned response will be elicited by other stimuli that are similar to the original conditional stimulus
  • The conditional response is not usually as large as it is to the original conditional stimulus
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20
Q

What is the generalisation gradient?

A

The more similar the stimulus is to the conditioned stimulus = the larger the conditional response

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21
Q

Outline discrimination, using examples

A
  • If a response is conditioned to one stimulus, the organism may also respond to a similar stimulus (generalisation) but not to a dissimilar stimulus (discrimination)
  • Little Albert’s conditioned fear of rats generalised to other furry white objects
  • Pavlov’s dogs were able to discriminate between different tones/bells
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22
Q

Outline chemotherapy as an application of classical conditioning

A

UCS (chemotherapy) > UCR (nausea)
NS (food eaten)
UCS (chemotherapy) > UCR (nausea)
CS (food eaten) > CR (nausea)

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23
Q

What factors affect conditioning (3)?

A
  • Stimulus contingency/inter-stimulus interval
  • Individual learning history
  • Biological preparedness
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24
Q

Outline stimulus contingency/inter-stimulus interval

A
  • Time between presentations
  • Order of presentation
    -Forward conditioning (CS before UCS)
    -Simultaneous conditioning (CS and UCS at the same time)
    -Backward conditioning (CS after UCS)
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25
Q

Outline individual learning history

A
  • Prior history with stimuli
    -Previously learned but extinguished associations are easier to learn than ‘new’ associations
  • Blocking
    -Failure of a stimulus to elicit a conditioned response when it is combined with another stimulus that already elicits the CR
  • Latent inhibition
    -Initial exposure to neutral stimulus without the UCS slows later learning of CS-UCS association and developing CR
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26
Q

Outline preparedness to learn

A
  • Some associations are more easily learned than others
  • Known as prepared learning, biologically wired readiness to learn some associations more easily than others
  • E.g. land animals connect taste with nausea responses
  • Garcia and Koelling (1966) established this in an experiment looking at learning in rats
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27
Q

Define operant conditioning

A
  • Study of goal oriented behaviour
  • Refers to changes in behaviour that occur as a result of the consequences of the behaviour
28
Q

Outline instrumental learning experiment

A
  • Trial 1- more than 150 seconds to escape
  • Trial 40- 7 seconds to escape
  • Behaviours that opened the door were followed by consequences (escape, food)
  • The organism’s behaviour changed because of the consequences that followed it
29
Q

Outline Thorndike’s law of effect

A

Behaviours leading to a desired state of affairs are strengthened, whereas those leading to an unsatisfactory state of affairs are weakened

30
Q

Outline operant conditioning

A
  • A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences
    -Operant response behaviours are voluntary in nature
    -Emitted by the subject rather than elicited by the environment
31
Q

Outline Skinner’s experiments

A
  • Skinner systematised operant conditioning research using the Skinner box
  • He devised methods that allowed the animal to repeat the operant response many times in the conditioning situation
  • Studied level pressing in rats and pecking in pigeons
  • In Skinner’s experiments the DV = response rate
  • Skinner believed behaviour could be classified into two subcategories
    1. Respondent behaviour (reflexive)
    2. Operant behaviour (voluntary)
  • Proposed that voluntary behaviours are controlled by their consequences (rather than by preceding stimuli)
32
Q

Define reinforcement

A
  • An environmental stimulus that occurs after behaviour and increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur in the future
  • If the consequences that follow a behaviour are favourable, the tendency to repeat the behaviour is strengthened
33
Q

Define positive reinforcement

A
  • The presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future
  • The response is strengthened because it is followed by presentation of a rewarding stimulus
34
Q

Define negative reinforcement

A
  • Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus
35
Q

Define primary reinforcers, giving examples

A
  • Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities
  • These kinds of reinforcers are not learned
  • Water, food, sleep, shelter, affection, sex and touch, among others are primary reinforcers
36
Q

Define primary reinforcers, giving examples

A
  • A secondary reinforcer has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer
  • Praise, linking to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforcer, as when you called out “great shot!” every time a child scored a goal in soccer
37
Q

Define positive punishment, giving an example

A
  • The presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future
  • E.g. a speeding fine
38
Q

Define negative punishment, giving an example

A
  • The removal of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future
  • E.g. removal of TV watching time
39
Q

Outline potential issues with punishment

A
  • Learner may not understand which operant behaviour is being punished
  • Learner may come to fear the ‘punisher’, rather than learn the association between the action and punishment
  • Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour, e.g. ‘acting out’ in class may result in punishment, but peer approval (reinforcement)
  • Using punishment when the teacher is angry
  • Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression
40
Q

Differentiate between punishment and reinforcement, outlining when each is effective

A
  • Punishment of undesirable behaviours is not very effective in achieving disciplinary goals
  • Reinforcing desirable behaviours is more effective
  • Punishment is more effective when:
    -Applying punishment swiftly
    -Having a severity that is high enough to weaken the desired response
    -Being consistent
    -Minimising the dependence on physical punishment
41
Q

Outline acquisition and shaping as a process of operant conditioning, giving examples

A
  • A procedure in which a complex behaviour is trained/taught by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response
    -Training a dog to fetch the paper
    -Teaching a child to tie shoelaces
    -‘Clicker’ training
    -Only positive reinforcement
42
Q

Outline extinction as a process of operant conditioning

A
  • Just like in classical conditioning, if the reinforcer stops then the response tendency will weaken and disappear
    -Commencement of extinction is often accompanied by a gradual decline until the response rate is zero
43
Q

Define schedules of reinforcement

A

The pattern of reinforcer (or punisher) delivery affects the pattern of responding

44
Q

Define continuous reinforcement schedules

A
  • Reinforcer is obtained after every response
  • Good for training new behaviour
45
Q

Define intermittent/partial reinforcement schedules

A
  • Reinforcer is not obtained for every response
  • More resistant to extinction, behaviour persists for longer
46
Q

Outline the four types of intermittent/partial reinforcement schedules

A
  • Fixed interval- reinforced after a specific time period has elapsed
  • Variable interval- reinforced after an average time period has elapsed
  • Fixed ratio- reinforced every nth response
  • Variable ratio- on average, reinforced after every nth response
47
Q

Outline fixed interval schedule, giving examples

A
  • When behaviour is rewarded after a set amount of time
  • This type of schedule exists in payment systems when someone is paid hourly
    -No matter how much work that person does in one hour (behaviour), they will be paid the same amount (reinforcement)
48
Q

Outline variable interval schedule, giving examples

A
  • Subject gets the reinforcement based on varying and unpredictable amounts of time
  • People who like to fish experience this type of reinforcement schedule:
    -On average, in the same location, you are likely to catch about the same number of fish in a given time period
    -However, you do not know exactly when those catches will occur (reinforcement) within the time period spent fishing (behaviour)
49
Q

Outline fixed ratio schedule, giving examples

A
  • A set number of responses must occur before the behaviour is rewarded
  • This can be seen in payment for work such as fruit picking:
    -Pickers are paid a certain amount (reinforcement), which encourages them to pick faster in order to make more money
50
Q

Outline variable ratio schedule, giving examples

A
  • The number of responses needed for a reward varies
  • This is the most powerful type of intermittent reinforcement schedule
  • In humans, this type of schedule is used in casinos to attract gamblers:
    -A slot machine pays out an average win ratio- say five to one- but does not guarantee that every fifth bet (behaviour) will be rewarded (reinforcement) with a win
51
Q

Define discriminative stimuli

A

The presence of a certain stimuli has to be present for the behaviour to be made

52
Q

Define stimulus generalisation

A

Responding increases in presence of new stimuli that resemble original discriminative stimulus

53
Q

Define stimulus discrimination

A

Responding does not increase in presence of new stimuli that resemble original discriminative stimulus

54
Q

What are examples of applications of operant conditioning?

A
  • Behaviour therapy
    -Reducing thumb sucking
    -Reducing tantrums
    -Quitting smoking
  • Behavioural modification
    -Token economies
    -Remedial education
55
Q

Define observational learning

A

Observational learning is learning by observing the behaviour of others (models)

56
Q

What does imitation of a model’s behaviour depend on?

A
  • Prestige of the model
  • Likeability and attractiveness of the model
  • Whether the model was rewarded or punished for his/her behaviour (vicarious conditioning)
57
Q

Summarise Bandura

A
  • Two groups of children
  • Group 1 watched an adult acting aggressively toward bobo doll
  • Group 2 watched a non-aggressive model
58
Q

What are the four key processes in imitating a model’s behaviour?

A
  • Attention to model’s behaviour and the consequences
  • Retention of observed response in memory until a similar situation arises
  • Ability to reproduce the observed response
  • Motivation to reproduce the observed response
59
Q

List applications of observational learning

A
  • Survival
  • Behavioural skills intervention
  • Motor skill learning
60
Q

What does cognitive social theory argue?

A

Cognitive social theory argues that we form expectancies about the consequences of our behaviours

61
Q

Define locus of control

A

The expectancy of whether or not fate determines outcomes in life

62
Q

Define internal locus

A

Believe that their actions determine fate

63
Q

Define external locus

A

Believe that their lives are governed by forces outside of their control

64
Q

Describe the learned helplessness experiment on dogs

A

Day 1
* Experimental condition- dogs were harnessed so that they could not escape electric shocks
-The dogs eventually gave up
-Laid down, stopped struggling, showed signs of physiological distress
* Control condition- dogs were not exposed to inescapable shocks

Day 2
* Dogs were placed in shuttle box where escape was possible
* The dogs in the control condition learned how to escape
* Dogs in experimental condition:
-Most did not attempt to escape
-They has learned how to be helpless

65
Q

What is the application of learned helplessness?

A
  • The expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events
    -As a result of this belief, severely adverse effect on motivation and learning
  • Seligman argued that learned helplessness is central to human depression

Intro to Psych (10 decks)

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