Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Intro to Psych > Week 10- Learning > Flashcards

Week 10- Learning Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Psychology 101 flashcards GRE® Psychology flashcards
1
Q

Define learning

A
  • Any enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience
    -Change/adaptation
    -Enduring
    -Necessary for survival
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is the key issue with learning?

A

Learning cannot be observed directly, it is inferred from behaviour that is observed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Define reflex, with an example

A

A behaviour that is automatically elicited by an environmental stimulus
-E.g. a blink when something rapidly approaches your eye

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Define habituation

A

The reduction in response strength of a reflex over repeated presentations of the stimulus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Outline classical conditioning and what this entails

A
  • The learning of anew association between two previously unrelated stimuli
  • We learn that a stimulus predicts a certain event and we respond accordingly
  • In classical conditioning, all responses are reflexes or autonomic responses that are elicited by environmental stimuli
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Define unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Define unconditioned response (UCR)

A

An unlearned reaction to an unconditional stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Define conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

A previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Define conditioned response (CR)

A

A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Define acquisition and the process required for this to occur

A
  • The process of acquiring the new association between the stimuli and the response
  • It takes multiple instances of two things being paired together for the organism to actually learn that paired association and transfer the reaction onto what was the neutral stimulus
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What can classical conditioning change?

A
  • Behaviour
    -Preference
    -Avoidance
  • Emotions
    -“Liking”
    -Arousal
  • Physiology
    -Heart rate
    -Skin conductance
    -Muscle tension
  • Cognitions
    -Law of prediction
    -Formulation of plans to cope with UCR
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Outline conditioned taste aversion with an example

A
  • A learned aversion to a taste associated with an unpleasant feeling, usually nausea

UCS (toxic event) > UCR (nausea)
NS (taste of prawns) > UCR (nausea)
+ UCS (toxic event)
CS (taste of prawns) > CR (nausea)

-Behaviour: avoids prawns
-Emotions: “I hate prawns”
-Physiology: heart rate, skin conductance, muscle tension
-Cognitions: law of prediction. “If I eat prawns, I will be sick”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Outline the three temporal relations of the acquisition phase of classical conditioning

A
  • Simultaneous conditioning- UCS and CS begin and end together
  • Forward conditioning- CS begins just before UCS
  • Backward conditioning- UCS begins before CS begins
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Define and outline the process of extinction

A
  • If the unconditioned response is not presented the conditional stimulus will gradually lose its ability to elicit a conditional response
  • Time taken to extinguish CR depends on the strength of the conditioned bond when extinction begins
  • The weakening of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus
  • Extinction is not an unlearning of the conditioned response. It is a learned inhibition of responding
  • Important implications for treatment of phobias
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Outline the use of extinction to treat phobias

A
  • Behavioural treatment for phobias is based on extinction
  • As the fear is so strong this is usually done in steps through systematic desensitisation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Outline spontaneous recovery

A
  • If there is a break after extinction, a conditional response will be shown upon another presentation of the conditioned stimulus
  • This ‘spontaneous recovery’ response will typically be smaller than before extinction
  • The longer the delay, the larger the spontaneous recovery
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Outline renewal effect

A

If a CR extinguished in an environment different to the acquisition environment, then the extinguished response will re-appear when the animal is returned to the acquisition environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Define unlearning vs suppression

A

Spontaneous recovery and renewal effects suggest that extinction suppresses a CR but CR is not unlearned

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Outline stimulus generalisation

A
  • Organism that has learned a response to the specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar, for example:
    -Pavlov’s dogs respond to similar tones
    -Fear of a specific bridge = fear of bridges
    -Little Albert (Watson and Rayner)
  • Generally adaptive
  • A conditioned response will be elicited by other stimuli that are similar to the original conditional stimulus
  • The conditional response is not usually as large as it is to the original conditional stimulus
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What is the generalisation gradient?

A

The more similar the stimulus is to the conditioned stimulus = the larger the conditional response

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Outline discrimination, using examples

A
  • If a response is conditioned to one stimulus, the organism may also respond to a similar stimulus (generalisation) but not to a dissimilar stimulus (discrimination)
  • Little Albert’s conditioned fear of rats generalised to other furry white objects
  • Pavlov’s dogs were able to discriminate between different tones/bells
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Outline chemotherapy as an application of classical conditioning

A

UCS (chemotherapy) > UCR (nausea)
NS (food eaten)
UCS (chemotherapy) > UCR (nausea)
CS (food eaten) > CR (nausea)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What factors affect conditioning (3)?

A
  • Stimulus contingency/inter-stimulus interval
  • Individual learning history
  • Biological preparedness
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Outline stimulus contingency/inter-stimulus interval

A
  • Time between presentations
  • Order of presentation
    -Forward conditioning (CS before UCS)
    -Simultaneous conditioning (CS and UCS at the same time)
    -Backward conditioning (CS after UCS)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Outline individual learning history

A
  • Prior history with stimuli
    -Previously learned but extinguished associations are easier to learn than ‘new’ associations
  • Blocking
    -Failure of a stimulus to elicit a conditioned response when it is combined with another stimulus that already elicits the CR
  • Latent inhibition
    -Initial exposure to neutral stimulus without the UCS slows later learning of CS-UCS association and developing CR
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Outline preparedness to learn

A
  • Some associations are more easily learned than others
  • Known as prepared learning, biologically wired readiness to learn some associations more easily than others
  • E.g. land animals connect taste with nausea responses
  • Garcia and Koelling (1966) established this in an experiment looking at learning in rats
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Define operant conditioning

A
  • Study of goal oriented behaviour
  • Refers to changes in behaviour that occur as a result of the consequences of the behaviour
28
Q

Outline instrumental learning experiment

A
  • Trial 1- more than 150 seconds to escape
  • Trial 40- 7 seconds to escape
  • Behaviours that opened the door were followed by consequences (escape, food)
  • The organism’s behaviour changed because of the consequences that followed it
29
Q

Outline Thorndike’s law of effect

A

Behaviours leading to a desired state of affairs are strengthened, whereas those leading to an unsatisfactory state of affairs are weakened

30
Q

Outline operant conditioning

A
  • A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences
    -Operant response behaviours are voluntary in nature
    -Emitted by the subject rather than elicited by the environment
31
Q

Outline Skinner’s experiments

A
  • Skinner systematised operant conditioning research using the Skinner box
  • He devised methods that allowed the animal to repeat the operant response many times in the conditioning situation
  • Studied level pressing in rats and pecking in pigeons
  • In Skinner’s experiments the DV = response rate
  • Skinner believed behaviour could be classified into two subcategories
    1. Respondent behaviour (reflexive)
    2. Operant behaviour (voluntary)
  • Proposed that voluntary behaviours are controlled by their consequences (rather than by preceding stimuli)
32
Q

Define reinforcement

A
  • An environmental stimulus that occurs after behaviour and increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur in the future
  • If the consequences that follow a behaviour are favourable, the tendency to repeat the behaviour is strengthened
33
Q

Define positive reinforcement

A
  • The presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future
  • The response is strengthened because it is followed by presentation of a rewarding stimulus
34
Q

Define negative reinforcement

A
  • Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus
35
Q

Define primary reinforcers, giving examples

A
  • Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities
  • These kinds of reinforcers are not learned
  • Water, food, sleep, shelter, affection, sex and touch, among others are primary reinforcers
36
Q

Define primary reinforcers, giving examples

A
  • A secondary reinforcer has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer
  • Praise, linking to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforcer, as when you called out “great shot!” every time a child scored a goal in soccer
37
Q

Define positive punishment, giving an example

A
  • The presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future
  • E.g. a speeding fine
38
Q

Define negative punishment, giving an example

A
  • The removal of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future
  • E.g. removal of TV watching time
39
Q

Outline potential issues with punishment

A
  • Learner may not understand which operant behaviour is being punished
  • Learner may come to fear the ‘punisher’, rather than learn the association between the action and punishment
  • Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour, e.g. ‘acting out’ in class may result in punishment, but peer approval (reinforcement)
  • Using punishment when the teacher is angry
  • Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression
40
Q

Differentiate between punishment and reinforcement, outlining when each is effective

A
  • Punishment of undesirable behaviours is not very effective in achieving disciplinary goals
  • Reinforcing desirable behaviours is more effective
  • Punishment is more effective when:
    -Applying punishment swiftly
    -Having a severity that is high enough to weaken the desired response
    -Being consistent
    -Minimising the dependence on physical punishment
41
Q

Outline acquisition and shaping as a process of operant conditioning, giving examples

A
  • A procedure in which a complex behaviour is trained/taught by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response
    -Training a dog to fetch the paper
    -Teaching a child to tie shoelaces
    -‘Clicker’ training
    -Only positive reinforcement
42
Q

Outline extinction as a process of operant conditioning

A
  • Just like in classical conditioning, if the reinforcer stops then the response tendency will weaken and disappear
    -Commencement of extinction is often accompanied by a gradual decline until the response rate is zero
43
Q

Define schedules of reinforcement

A

The pattern of reinforcer (or punisher) delivery affects the pattern of responding

44
Q

Define continuous reinforcement schedules

A
  • Reinforcer is obtained after every response
  • Good for training new behaviour
45
Q

Define intermittent/partial reinforcement schedules

A
  • Reinforcer is not obtained for every response
  • More resistant to extinction, behaviour persists for longer
46
Q

Outline the four types of intermittent/partial reinforcement schedules

A
  • Fixed interval- reinforced after a specific time period has elapsed
  • Variable interval- reinforced after an average time period has elapsed
  • Fixed ratio- reinforced every nth response
  • Variable ratio- on average, reinforced after every nth response
47
Q

Outline fixed interval schedule, giving examples

A
  • When behaviour is rewarded after a set amount of time
  • This type of schedule exists in payment systems when someone is paid hourly
    -No matter how much work that person does in one hour (behaviour), they will be paid the same amount (reinforcement)
48
Q

Outline variable interval schedule, giving examples

A
  • Subject gets the reinforcement based on varying and unpredictable amounts of time
  • People who like to fish experience this type of reinforcement schedule:
    -On average, in the same location, you are likely to catch about the same number of fish in a given time period
    -However, you do not know exactly when those catches will occur (reinforcement) within the time period spent fishing (behaviour)
49
Q

Outline fixed ratio schedule, giving examples

A
  • A set number of responses must occur before the behaviour is rewarded
  • This can be seen in payment for work such as fruit picking:
    -Pickers are paid a certain amount (reinforcement), which encourages them to pick faster in order to make more money
50
Q

Outline variable ratio schedule, giving examples

A
  • The number of responses needed for a reward varies
  • This is the most powerful type of intermittent reinforcement schedule
  • In humans, this type of schedule is used in casinos to attract gamblers:
    -A slot machine pays out an average win ratio- say five to one- but does not guarantee that every fifth bet (behaviour) will be rewarded (reinforcement) with a win
51
Q

Define discriminative stimuli

A

The presence of a certain stimuli has to be present for the behaviour to be made

52
Q

Define stimulus generalisation

A

Responding increases in presence of new stimuli that resemble original discriminative stimulus

53
Q

Define stimulus discrimination

A

Responding does not increase in presence of new stimuli that resemble original discriminative stimulus

54
Q

What are examples of applications of operant conditioning?

A
  • Behaviour therapy
    -Reducing thumb sucking
    -Reducing tantrums
    -Quitting smoking
  • Behavioural modification
    -Token economies
    -Remedial education
55
Q

Define observational learning

A

Observational learning is learning by observing the behaviour of others (models)

56
Q

What does imitation of a model’s behaviour depend on?

A
  • Prestige of the model
  • Likeability and attractiveness of the model
  • Whether the model was rewarded or punished for his/her behaviour (vicarious conditioning)
57
Q

Summarise Bandura

A
  • Two groups of children
  • Group 1 watched an adult acting aggressively toward bobo doll
  • Group 2 watched a non-aggressive model
58
Q

What are the four key processes in imitating a model’s behaviour?

A
  • Attention to model’s behaviour and the consequences
  • Retention of observed response in memory until a similar situation arises
  • Ability to reproduce the observed response
  • Motivation to reproduce the observed response
59
Q

List applications of observational learning

A
  • Survival
  • Behavioural skills intervention
  • Motor skill learning
60
Q

What does cognitive social theory argue?

A

Cognitive social theory argues that we form expectancies about the consequences of our behaviours

61
Q

Define locus of control

A

The expectancy of whether or not fate determines outcomes in life

62
Q

Define internal locus

A

Believe that their actions determine fate

63
Q

Define external locus

A

Believe that their lives are governed by forces outside of their control

64
Q

Describe the learned helplessness experiment on dogs

A

Day 1
* Experimental condition- dogs were harnessed so that they could not escape electric shocks
-The dogs eventually gave up
-Laid down, stopped struggling, showed signs of physiological distress
* Control condition- dogs were not exposed to inescapable shocks

Day 2
* Dogs were placed in shuttle box where escape was possible
* The dogs in the control condition learned how to escape
* Dogs in experimental condition:
-Most did not attempt to escape
-They has learned how to be helpless

65
Q

What is the application of learned helplessness?

A
  • The expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events
    -As a result of this belief, severely adverse effect on motivation and learning
  • Seligman argued that learned helplessness is central to human depression

Intro to Psych (10 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions