Week 7 Flashcards
What is memory
Memory is the process by which we encode, store and retrieve information
* Not static, can change over time
* Sometimes we “fill in the gaps”
* Generally adaptive and sometimes correct, but makes us prone to error
* Brains go above and beyond available information to make sense of the world
Name the 3 foundations of memory
Encoding : Initiral recording of the information
Storage : Information saved for future use
Retrieval : Recovery of stored information
Three stage model memory
- 3 different types of memory, differ in span and duration
- Information must travel through all stages in order to be remembered
- SENSORY –> STM à LTM
Sensory memory
Storage of brief sensory events, such as
sights, sounds, and tastes.
* Each sense has own sensory memory – very brief
* Iconic: visual system, < 1 sec
* Echoic: auditory, 2-3 secs
* Snapshot that stores sensory info
* Unless it is transferred to other types of memory, it is lost
* High precision!
Short term memory
Limited capacity memory system where information is retained for only as long as 30 seconds (unless you try to retain it longer, via rehearsal!)
- Capacity is 7 +- 2 (magic number 7)
- STMs are either discarded or stored in LTM
How do you extend STM capacity
Can extend our STM span by chunking (organizing large body of info into smaller, meaningful groups)
What is rehearsal
the reptition of info that has entered STM
* leads to memory consolidation
What is maintenance rehearsal
Repeating the stimuli in the same form
Elaborative rehearsal
Information is considered & organized!
* Link stimuli to each other in meaningful way
* Usually more effective – much more likely to be transferred
* UNDERSTAND not memorize
What is working memory
A set of active, temporary memory stores that manipulate and rehearse information.
* Working memory is thought to contain a central executive processor that is involved in reasoning & decision-making
* Mental whiteboard
Long term memory
- Continuous storage of
information - May last decades OR lifetime
- It has no limit and is like the
information you store on the
hard drive of a computer - Anterograde vs. retrograde
amnesia evidences the
distinction from STM
Primacy effect
Ability to remember stimuli presented first
Recency effect
Ability to remember stimuli presented recently
Henry Molaison
Henry Molaison, commonly known as H.M., underwent surgery to remove his hippocampus in an attempt to treat his severe seizures. This procedure left him unable to form new explicit memories and caused retrograde amnesia, which meant he couldn’t remember events from about 11 years before the surgery.
The Canadian-British neuroscientist Brenda Milner studied him extensively and discovered that, although H.M. could not recall performing tasks like the mirror tracing task, he showed improvement over time. This indicated that while his ability to form new explicit memories was impaired due to hippocampal damage, he could still learn new skills.
H.M.’s case highlighted the distinction between explicit memory, which involves conscious recollection, and implicit memory, which involves learning and performing tasks without conscious awareness. This case significantly advanced our understanding of how different types of memory are processed in the brain.
LTM Declarative memory
What does explicit memory, semantic, and episiodic mean
Explicit memory: conscious recollection of information, such as facts & events
Semantic: general knowledge
* Knowing who the prime minister is
Episodic: recollection of events in our lives
* The Christmas you finally got a CD player
* Your first kiss
* Your first day of university
Implicit memory
– memory in which behaviour is affected by a prior experience without a conscious recollection of that
experience
Procedural memory
Memory for how to do things
Priming
Activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember/identify new info faster
Hippocampus and what happens if damaged
plays a role in memory consolidation (helps in initial encoding)
* Damage leads to inability to process new declarative memories
Amygdala
Amygdala: heavily involved with memories involving emotion (e.g., traumatic experiences, phobias)
Long term potentiation
Certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned (neurons that fire together, wire together)
synapses between neurons increase, dendrites branch out
Why do we forget ?
Encoding failures
Are most events we experience encoded
No they are not
Encoding failures
Stress
Stress
* Stress reduces the accuracy of eyewitness recall and correct identification (e.g., POW study, less accurate ID with high intensity interrogation)
* Stress can focus attention (e.g., pen vs. syringe experiment)
What are some other reasons why encoding failures happen
Own age bias
Cross race effect
Why do we forget
Retrieval failure
Interference
Loss of information due to competitiono with new info
Retroactive interference
Learning new info hampers something previously learned
Proactive interference
Earlier learning getts in the way of learning something new
What is amnesia
The loss of long term memory that occurs as a result of disease, physical trauama or psychological trauma
Explain anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia
(1) Anterograde amnesia: inability to remember new info after point of trauma
* Commonly caused by brain trauma
* Hippocampus is usually affected – inability to transfer info from STM to LTM
(2) Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory (partial or complete) for events that occurred prior to trauma
Clive Weavering
Clive Wearing, a former musicologist, suffered from herpes simplex encephalitis in 1985, which severely damaged his central nervous system and destroyed much of his hippocampus. This left him with profound anterograde and retrograde amnesia, earning him the nickname “30 Second Clive” due to his extremely short memory span. Despite these severe memory impairments, Clive retains the ability to play the piano, which highlights the distinction between declarative (explicit) memory and non-declarative (implicit) memory. His case has provided valuable insights into how different types of memory function and are stored in the brain.
Retrieving memories
Retrieval
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back int o consciou sawareness
Explain recall and recognition in retrieving memories
- Recall – being able to access information without cues (e.g., for a short answer test)
- Recognition – being able to identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again (e.g., multiple-choice questions)
Levels of processing theory
- The depth of information during exposure to material (the degree to which it is analyzed & considered) is critical
- The greater the intensity of the initial processing, the more likely we
are to remember it!
LEvels of processing theory
Shallow & Deepest
Shallow : Information processed by physical & sensory aspects ( ex; memoriing key terms)
Deepest : Analyzing information in terms of meaning - think about the meaning and reflecting on how they relate to information we already know
Encoding specificity
Remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve the info are similar to the encoding conditions
Context dependent learning
Context-dependent learning
* Scuba study
* E.g., students tend to do better when tested in their usual classroom
State-dependent learning
* Alcoholism
Flashbulb memory
A record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations.
* Memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved (though not necessary accurate)
Depending on age and awareness/interests, certain flashbulb memories
act as generational reference points. Eg:
* Assassinations of John Kennedy, Martin Luther King
* The first humans landing on the Moon
* Attacks on 9/11
Memory is reconstructive so
- We forget over time
- Memories change over time and can be influenced by:
- Cognitive “hardware” (stereotypes, schema,
scripts) - Post-event information
Important implications for the courtroom!
What are schemas & scripts
Organized knowledge structures or mental models that we’ve stored in memory – used to “fill in the gap”
* Memory may be distorted to conform with
schema/script
* E.g., robbery script study – ps recalled
omitted details to conform with script
(Holst & Pezdek,1992)
* Stereotypes can also influence memories
What is suggestibility
The effects of misinformation from external sources
that leads to the creation of false memories.
* Can cause people to claim to remember something that was only a suggestion someone made
* Memories are fragile, vulnerable to suggestion
* Important area of study is eyewitness testimony
Misinformation effect
Where post-event information alters or
becomes incorporated into the original
memory (Loftus, 1974)
* How fast were the cars going when they
______ into each other?
* Did you see any broken glass?
* What did you see vs. did you see the car pass
the yield sign?
Name 2 studies of false memories
In the Loftus (1997) study, participants were asked to recall events from their past, which included three true events and one false event. After two interviews, 25% of the participants remembered the implanted false memory of being lost at the mall.
In the Hyman et al. (1997) study, participants were told they had spilled punch on a wedding guest when they were 5 years old. Initially, none of the participants recalled this event, but eventually, 27% accepted it as true and even added additional details to the false memory.
Both studies illustrate the ease with which false memories can be implanted through suggestion and repeated questioning, highlighting the malleable nature of human memory.
Laboratory induction of false childhood memories
Researchers have successfully implanted various false childhood memories in laboratory settings. These memories range from mildly traumatic experiences to more benign yet fabricated events. Examples of such implanted memories include:
- Being hospitalized overnight
- Being attacked by a dog
- Nearly drowning
- Witnessing demonic possession
- Meeting Bugs Bunny at Disneyland
These studies, as noted by Saletan in 2010, illustrate the susceptibility of human memory to suggestion and manipulation, further emphasizing the malleable nature of our recollections. This research has significant implications for understanding the reliability of memory, particularly in legal and therapeutic contexts.
Memory Hacker Shaw & Porter
In the “Memory Hacker” study by Shaw and Porter (2015), researchers explored the controversial idea that false memories of committing a crime could be implanted in participants. The study involved 60 college students who underwent three interviews. By the end of the study, 70% of the participants were convinced they had committed a crime, such as theft or assault with a weapon, even though these events never occurred. This study highlights the potential for false memories to be created through suggestive memory-retrieval techniques, raising important questions about the reliability of memory, especially in legal contexts.
Is there anything else you’d like to know about this study or memory research in general?
What is the leading cause of wrongful convinctions
eyewitness misidentification
Explain line up procedures
Witnesses identify a culprit from a lineup or photo array
* Lineups contain the suspect and a set of foils or
distractors
