Week 10 Flashcards
Nature vs nurture
The degree to which environment and heredity influence behaviour
heredity
Influences based on genetic makeup of an individual that influence growth and development
Environment
influence of parents, siblings, family, friends, schooling,
nutrition, and all other experiences to which a child is exposed
Twin studies
Provide us important information on the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors
- Identical twins: different patterns of development, differences attributed to environment
- Separated at birth studies are most useful – genetically identical but raised in differing environments
Name the 3 developmental research techniques
Cross section research
Longitudinal research
Sequential research
What is cross sectional research, longitudinal research and sequential research ?
Cross-sectional research compares people of different ages at the same point in time
* Differences in developmental between age groups
Longitudinal research traces behaviour of one or more participants as they age
* Changes in behaviour over time
Sequential research takes a number of different age groups and examines them at several time points
Exposure to Dr seuss (DeCasper & Spence 1986)
Name IV, procedure and DV (+results)
Independent Variable (IV):
- Experimental Group: “Cat in the Hat” read daily during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy.
- Control Group: Mothers do not read aloud.
Procedure:
- Newborns (2 days old) were exposed to speech sounds.
Dependent Variable (DV):
- Changes in sucking patterns.
Results:
- Experimental Group (Seuss): Showed changes in sucking patterns, indicating a preference.
- Control Group: No changes in sucking patterns, indicating no preference.
This study demonstrated that prenatal auditory exposure can influence postnatal behavior, suggesting that newborns have the capability to remember and be influenced by sounds they heard while in the womb. If you need more details or have other questions, feel free to ask!
What are teratogens
Substances or environmental factors that can harm a developing fetus (growth problems, birth defects, miscarriage, etc)
Maternal fluoride exposure & IQ scores
Green at al., 2019 (YorkU research!)
* Children born between 2008 and
2012 – 41% lived in communities
with fluoridated municipal water
- N = 601 mother-child pairs
- Maternal exposure to higher levels
of fluoride associated with lower
IQ scores in children aged 3 to 4
(only a few IQ points)
What is thalidomide
- Drug prescribed to treat morning
sickness - Pulled in 1962
- Highly teratogenic – limb malformations
and other birth defects - Babies exposed at earliest stages born
without ears - New safety protocols introduced in
Canada as a result - Gov’t of Canada has never officially
recognized/apologized for their role
Kindchenschema
- Humans are predisposed toward protection and nurturance
- Cuteness activates dopamine (neurochemical reward system)
- Kawaii attributes: large head, round face, big eyes, unstable movements
- Evolutionary
Attachement
Attachment = emotional bond that develops between a child and an individual, evidenced by seeking closeness to caregiver & displaying distress on separation – evolutionary advantage!
* Earliest studies of attachment by Konrad Lorenz (1965) –focused on goslings & imprinting during critical period
* Deprivation associated with cog & emotional impairment
Harlow’s Monkeys: comfort > food
- Infant rhesus monkeys separated from mom soon
after birth - Choice of cuddling with a wire “monkey” that provided milk, or a soft terry-cloth monkey that was warm –preferred contact with cloth mom
- When afraid, sought contact comfort of cloth mom
Bowlby on Attachment
- Infants programmed from birth to emit behaviours that trigger caregiver responses (e.g., crying, clinging)
- Caregivers biologically programmed to respond with care & nurturance
- Reciprocity builds attachment – infants respond positively to caregiver produce more positive behaviour from caregiver which produces stronger bond
How are children who are securely attached at age 1
Children who are securely attached at age 1:
* More socially & emotionally competent, others find them more cooperative, capable & playful
* Fewer psychological difficulties when they grow older
* More successful romantic relationships
Criticisms of attachement theory
Cultural variations & different child-rearing practices
* Fails to take temperament into account
* Caregivers & infants share genetic characteristics – attachment might be a product of shared genes
Authoritarian parenitng
parent behaviour and type of behaviour produced in child
Parent behaviour: rigid, punitive, strict standards
Type of behaviour produced in child: unsociable, unfriendly, withdrawn
Permissive parenting
Parent behaviour: lax, inconsistent, undemanding
Type of behaviour produced in
child: immature, moody, dependent, low self-control
Uninvolved parenting
Parent behaviour: detached emotionally, sees role only as providing food, clothing, and shelter
Type of behavior produced in child: Indifferent, rejecting
behaviour
Authoritative parenting
Parent behaviour: Firm, sets limits and goals, uses reasoning, encourages independence
Type of behavior produced in child: Good social skills, likeable, self-reliant, independent
Temperament
Innate dispositionthat emerges early in life
Temperament is the natural part of an individual’s personality that emerges from birth. It includes traits such as emotional reactivity, intensity, mood, and adaptability.
Resiliency
Ability to overcome circumstances that place them at high risk for psychological harm - resilient children shape their own environment
Psychosocial development
- Psychosocial development: how we interact with others and develop a sense of sense and identity while navigating social, cultural and environmental changes
- Passage through each of the stages necessitates
the resolution of crisis or conflict - Must be resolved sufficiently to equip us for
the next stage
Eriksons theory of psychosocial development
(1) Trust-versus-mistrust stage (birth to 1.5)
Infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust, based on interaction w/ caregivers
(2) Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt (1.5 – 3) Toddlers develop independence & autonomy if exploration & freedom are encouraged, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted/overprotected
(3) Initiative-versus-guilt (3 – 6)
Children experience conflict between their independence of action and the potential negative consequences of those actions.
(4) Industry-versus-inferiority stage (6 – 12)
Children may develop positive social interactions with others OR feel socially inadequate
How does cognition change through infancy and childhood
- Jean Piaget – swiss psychologist – working on
intelligence testing & became interested in errors made
by children - Children pass through stages on their way to adult-like
thinking - Children motivated to match their experiences with
their beliefs about the world (schemas)
Assimilation and accomodation
Assimilation: incorporate new experiences into current
understanding
Accommodation: new experiences forces adjustment/change to existing schema
Piagets 4 stages of theory of cognitive development
1) Sensorimotor stage:
understanding based on touching, chewing, manipulating, etc
- Birth to 2 years
- Develop object permanence
2) Preoperational stage
- 2 to 7 years
- Development of language and symbolic thinking, egocentric thinking
- Egocentric thought: child views the world entirely from their own perspective
- Thinks that everyone shares their perspective and knowledge (e.g., tell confusing stories, hide their face & think you can’t see them)
3) Concrete operational stage
- 7 to 12 years
- Principle of conservation: quantity is unrelated to
the arrangement and physical appearance of
objects
- Think in a more logical manner, overcome
egocentrism
- Reversibility: some changes can be undone by
reversing an earlier action
- Bound to concrete, physical reality – difficulty
with abstract
4) Formal operational stage
- Age 12 to adulthood
- Development of logical and
abstract thinking
How does changes in moral reasonign happen in 3 level sequences (adolescence)
Kohlberg
Kohlberg states people pass through a series of stages in their evolution of justice and moral reasoning
* Adolescents can understand that morality isn’t black & white (unlike
children)
* Changes in moral reasoning happen in three-level sequences
1. Preconventional morality: fear of punishment leads to obedience
2. Conventional morality: law & order – don’t rock the boat!
3. Post conventional : At this stage, individuals recognize that moral principles and values are not absolute but are instead subject to change and interpretation.
Kohlberg moral stages
Level 1
Preconventional morality—At this level,
the concrete interests of the individual are
considered in terms of rewards and
punishments.
Level 2
Conventional morality—At this level,
people approach moral problems as members
of society. They are interested in pleasing
others by acting as good members of society
Level 3
Postconventional morality—At this level,
people use moral principles which are seen as
broader than those of any particular society
Gender differences in morality
- Men and women view moral behaviour differently due to socialization
Care-based versus justice-based
- Women: care-based orientation, emphasize interpersonal relationships, guided by social emotions
- Men: justice & fairness
- NOT absolute
Adolescent egocentrism
cognitiv development in adolescence
state of intense self-focus – views world from own point of view
* This leads to being highly critical of authority figures, unwilling to accept criticism, inflexible thinking, fault others
Imaginery audience
Belief that they are the centre of everyones attention
Personal fables
cognitive development in adolescence
belief that one’s experiences are unique, exceptional, & shared by no one else (e.g., think about young heartbreak!)
Invincibility fable
: distorted perceptions of risk, exempt from rules of probability & nature
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
adolescence
5) Identify versus role confusion (adolescence)
* Adolescents trying to determine own identiy
* Confusion over most appropriate role can lead to lack of stable
identity, adoption of socially unacceptable roles (e.g., social deviant), difficulty in maintaining relationships
6) Intimacy versus isolation (post-adolescence to early 30s)
* Focus on developing close relationships with others
* Difficulty can result in loneliness, fear of relationships – success can lead to forming deep relationships (physical, emotional, intellectual)
Eriksons theory of psychosocial development
adulthood
7) Generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood)
* Generativity – ability to contribute to one’s family, community – assist in dev’t of younger generation
* Success leads to feeling positive about continuity of life, difficulties lead to feelings of trivial or stagnancy
8) Ego-integrity versus despair (late adulthood)
* Reviewing life’s successes and failures
* Success leads to resolving difficulties – sense of accomplishments, difficulties in regret over what might have been
Transitions of life
**Midlife transition
*** Begin to question their lives
* Midlife crisis: feeling of dissatisfaction with your
life
**Old age
*** Some types of thinking change, others stays the same
* Fluid intelligence (reasoning, memory, info
processing) tends to decline
* Crystallized intelligence (information, skills,
problem solving strategies) tends to remain stable and sometimes improves
How to prevent alzheimers
*Physical activity (may reduce risk up to 45%)
* Cognitive engagement (puzzles, learning new skills, lifelong learning)
* Healthy diet (mediterranean or DASH diet)
* Social connection
Gaming in late adulthood (studies)
Studies of older adults playing video games show improvement in real-world skills!
* Task switching, short-term memory, reasoning,
improvements in cognitive functioning in tests
& everyday life
* Effects tended to last several months
* US National Science Foundation awarded
million-dollar grant to study Nintendo Wii on
older adults
