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SK298 - Brain, the mind & mental health > Week 5 - Reconsidering ‘abnormality’ and mental health in brain development > Flashcards

Week 5 - Reconsidering ‘abnormality’ and mental health in brain development Flashcards

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1
Q

What is lissencephaly?

A

A congenital condition associated with changes in the migration of cortical neurons which affects brain development and functioning

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2
Q

What is the name for the congenital condition which is associated with changes in the structure and appearance of the cerebral cortex?

A

Lissencephaly

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3
Q

Is lissencephaly considered to be a mental health condition?

A

No

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4
Q

Which virus can cause microencephaly?

A

Zika

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5
Q

What is the name for a condition which is associated with smaller than usual head size at birth?

A

Microencephaly

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6
Q

What is the name for a syndrome which is a subtype of type 1 lissencephaly?

A

Miller-Dieker syndrome

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7
Q

What does the term syndrome denote?

A

A group of symptoms that, together, indicate the presence of a health condition

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8
Q

What is meant by the term ‘spectrum’ in the context of health conditions?

A

The occurrence of a set of symptoms ranging in severity

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9
Q

On which chromosome is the Miller-Dieker gene located?

A

Chromosome 17

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10
Q

What happens to the LIS1 gene in people who have Miller-Dieker syndrome?

A

It is deleted

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11
Q

What does the LIS1 gene code for?

A

A protein called platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase isoform 1B subunit 1 (PAFAH~1~B~1~)

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12
Q

PAFAH~1~B~1~ is an enzyme which interacts with what other kind of molecule?

A

Proteins

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13
Q

What does the protein dynactin play a role in?

A

Cell differentiation

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14
Q

What is the name of a protein which plays a role in cell differentiation?

A

Dynactin

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15
Q

Type I lissencephaly is characterised by a reduction in the number of cortical layers. How many cortical layers should there be in a healthy individual versus someone with lissencephaly?

A

Six in a healthy person, three or four in someone with lissencephaly

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16
Q

Aside from a reduction in the number of cortical layers, what are the two other characteristics of lissencephaly?

A
  • A thicker cortex than normal
  • Reduced cortical folding
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17
Q

In someone with lissencephaly, what is the thickness of their cortex versus a healthy person’s?

A

10-20mm instead of usually 4mm

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18
Q

What is the branch of abnormal psychology focussed on?

A

The study of unusual or ‘abnormal’ patterns of behaviour or mental processes

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19
Q

When using the term ‘abnormal psychology’, what are we referring to?

A

Mental health conditions which can be diagnosed according to a formalised diagnostic categorisation system

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20
Q

Is the term ‘abnormal psychology’ actually useful?

A

Not really; there is not an ‘abnormal’ psychology which explains illness or distress and a ‘normal’ psychology for everything else - there is just psychology!

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21
Q

What is the name for the process by which the genetic code in DNA is converted to mRNA?

A

Transcription

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22
Q

In the context of DNA replication, what is Transcription?

A

The process by which DNA is converted to mRNA

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23
Q

In the context of DNA replication, what is Translation?

A

The process in which mRNA is converted to a chain of amino acids

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24
Q

What is the name for the process by which mRNA sequences are converted to chains of amino acids?

A

Translation

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25
Q

What is the first stage of DNA replication?

A

Transcription

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26
Q

What is the second stage of DNA replication?

A

Translation

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27
Q

What are the two types of RNA which are involved in the process of translation?

A
  • rRNA
  • tRNA
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28
Q

What does rRNA stand for?

A

Ribosomal RNA

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29
Q

What is ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?

A

A type of RNA that is a essential for protein synthesis

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30
Q

What is transfer RNA (tRNA)?

A

tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis

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31
Q

How many chromosomes does each human cell have?

A

46

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32
Q

What does phenotype mean?

A

The expression of physical or behavioural traits due to a particular gene

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33
Q

What are two other terms that mean “different versions of the same gene”?

A
  • Genetic variants
  • Alleles
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34
Q

In the context of health conditions, what is meant by the term ‘sign’?

A

Something that can be observed or measured by someone other than the individual

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35
Q

In the context of health conditions, what is meant by the term ‘symptom’?

A

A feature only detectable by the individual

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36
Q

What does the study of epidemiology relate to?

A

The study of the distribution of disease or health conditions in different groups of people at different times

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37
Q

What can epidemiology provide information about?

A

The causes, prevention and control of disease

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38
Q

What does the term prevalence mean?

A

The overall number of cases of a disease or condition which exist within a given population at a specific point in time

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39
Q

What is meant by the term incidence?

A

The number of new cases of a disease or condition in the given population within a certain time period

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40
Q

How can both incidence and prevalence be calculated?

A

As both absolute numbers or percentages

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41
Q

What kind of data does a cross-sectional study collect?

A

Information at a particular point in time

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42
Q

What makes cross-sectional studies useful?

A

It enables comparison of different groups of participants

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43
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

One which collects data by following participants over a set time period

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44
Q

What makes a longitudinal study useful?

A

It provides information about any changes that occur to particular groups of individuals over time

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45
Q

What is an experimental study?

A

A study in which only one variable (the independent variable) is changed in order to measure the effects on another variable (the dependent variable)

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46
Q

What is meant by the term independent variable?

A

A variable which is changed in order to measure the effects on another variable

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47
Q

What is meant by the term dependent variable?

A

The variable that is affected by the changes to the independent variable

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48
Q

What type of environment is an experimental study usually conducted in?

A

Fairly regulated and controlled conditions

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49
Q

What type of environment is an observational study usually conducted in?

A

More natural settings, without researcher manipulation, so that changes in behaviour can be observed

50
Q

Do neurons and glial cells need the same type of proteins to function?

A

No

51
Q

Why do glial cells and neurons require different proteins in order to function?

A

Because they perform different roles within the nervous system

52
Q

What type of neurotransmitter does a cortical projection neuron require?

A

Glutamate

53
Q

What type of neurotransmitter does a cortical interneuron require?

A

GABA (gamma amino butyric acid)

54
Q

What is an interneuron?

A

A type of neuron that connects and modulates the activity of neurons within a limited region of the brain

55
Q

What is meant by the term gene silencing?

A

It is the process by which the expression of a gene is suppressed

56
Q

What is the name for the process by which gene expression is suppressed?

A

Gene silencing

57
Q

What is meant by the term gene activation?

A

It is the process by which an expression of a gene is activated

58
Q

What is the name for the process by which the expression of a gene is activated?

A

Gene activation

59
Q

What are epigenetic mechanisms?

A

They are means by which gene expression is altered by regulation from either gene silencing or gene activation

60
Q

What is the term used to describe what the processes of gene silencing and gene activation are?

A

Epigenetic mechanisms

61
Q

Are the changes that gene silencing and gene activation cause permanent or reversible?

A

Reversible

62
Q

Do the changes that gene silencing and gene activation bring about cause any effect to the genetic sequence coded in DNA?

A

No

63
Q

What is the name for the proteins which the DNA sequence in a chromosome is coiled around?

A

Histones

64
Q

What are histones?

A

The proteins in which the DNA sequence in a chromosome are coiled around

65
Q

What does the coiling of the DNA sequence around histones produce?

A

A thread of DNA and protein called chromatin

66
Q

What is chromatin?

A

A complex of DNA and proteins which organise genetic material within a cell’s nucleus

67
Q

What is the name for the section of DNA which is coiled round a histone?

A

A nucleosome

68
Q

What is nucleosome?

A

DNA which is wound around histone proteins and forms the basic unit of chromatin structure

69
Q

What type of chemical group modifies the part of the histone which protrudes from the nucleosome?

A

Acetyl (COCH3) groups

70
Q

What is DNA methylation?

A

It is a biological process by which methyl groups are added to DNA in order to regulate gene activity

71
Q

How does DNA methylation work?

A

It adds chemical tags (methyl groups) to DNA

72
Q

How do methyl groups switch gene expression on or off?

A

By increasing or decreasing gene transcription

73
Q

What is histone acetylation?

A

A process which adds acetyl groups to histone proteins to affect gene expression

74
Q

How does histone acetylation work?

A

It adds acetyl groups to histone proteins in order to modify chromatin structure

75
Q

What does an increase in DNA methylation cause?

A

An decrease in transcription

76
Q

What does an increase in histone acetylation cause?

A

An increase in DNA transcription

77
Q

What are the two processes that determine which genes are accessible for transcription?

A
  • Methylation
  • Acetylation
78
Q

The processes of methylation and acetylation are generally responsible for what?

A

Determining which genes are accessible for transcription

79
Q

What is non-coding RNA?

A

It is RNA that does not carry genetic code after transcription

80
Q

What is the purpose of RNA?

A

To regulate genes, influence cell function and play a vital role in cellular processes

81
Q

Is non-coding RNA translated into a protein?

A

No

82
Q

What is one type of non-coding RNA?

A

microRNA or miRNA

83
Q

What is microRNA or miRNA?

A

A type of RNA which binds to mRNA causing cleavage, degradation or blocking of the translation process

84
Q

What is the purpose of microRNA/miRNA?

A

To bind to mRNA and cause cleavage, degradation or blocking of the translation process

85
Q

What type of structure does acetylation alter?

A

Chromatin structure

86
Q

How does acetylation alter chromatin structure?

A

By modifying histone proteins, influencing gene expression and cellular functions in eukaryotic cells

87
Q

What are eukaryotic cells?

A

Cells which house genetic material and enable complex functions through specialised compartments and organelles

88
Q

Alteration of the chromatin structure is important for what reason?

A

To maintain renewal of embryonic stem cells

89
Q

Explain why a methylation modification pattern is important for maintaining renewal of embryonic stem cells?

A

Because one particular pattern might keep embryonic stem cells dividing symmetrically and prevent asymmentric division. If that pattern changes it could then trigger asymmetric division

90
Q

If maternal diabetes is not controlled, what chemicial can the extended period of hyperglycema cause an increase of?

A

Acetyl co-enzyme A (acetyl-CoA)

91
Q

What process does the chemical acetyl-CoA play a very important role in?

A

Epigenetic regulation

92
Q

What is glycolysis?

A

The process by which complex carbohydrates and simple sugars from food and drink are broken down during digestion

93
Q

During glycolysis, what substances is the glucose then broken down into?

A
  • Pyruvate
  • Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
94
Q

Which product of glycolysis goes on to be converted into acetyl-CoA?

A

Pyruvate

95
Q

What do mitochondria use in order to produce more ATP?

A

Acetyl-CoA

96
Q

What is the TCA cycle?

A

The series of chemical reactions that release stored energy

97
Q

What does the addition of acetyl groups to chromatin affect?

A

DNA, during transcription

98
Q

What is the name of the technique used to assess protein levels?

A

Western blotting

99
Q

Western blotting is the name of the technique used for measuring what?

A

Protein levels

100
Q

What are the three ways microRNA has a role in epigenetic regulation?

A
  • It can cause cleavage of mRNA
  • Degredation of mRNA
  • Block the translation process
101
Q

Which type of RNA is involved in epigenetic regulation?

A

microRNA

102
Q

In mice with induced diabetes, embryonic stem cells had what notable change?

A

Altered chromatin structure

103
Q

A change in chromatin structure is associated with an increase in what?

A

Acetylation

104
Q

What is Dcx?

A

A protein called doublecortin

105
Q

What is doublecortin (Dcx)?

A

A protein which is critical for neuronal migration and shaping the brain’s architecture during development

106
Q

Name a protein which is critical to neuronal cell migration?

A

Doublecortin (Dcx)

107
Q

Which protein, involved in cell migration, has also been found in a non-functional state in certain cases of lissencephaly?

A

Doublecortin (Dcx)

108
Q

What protein is responsible for shaping the brain’s architecture during development, as well as being critical in neuronal migration?

A

Doublecortin (Dcx)

109
Q

If microRNAs that target the translation of mRNAs from the DCx and PAFAH1B 1 genes are reduced, would levels of Dcx and PAFAH 1B 1 increase or decrease - and why?

A

They would increase.
MicroRNAs interfere with translation - if levels of microRNAs are reduced, their effect would be correspondingly reduced, which would mean the amount of protein produced would increase

110
Q

An increase in levels of DCx and PAFAH 1B 1 would have what effect on microRNA?

A

It would decrease

111
Q

The production of which proteins is reduced in lissencephaly?

A
  • Dcx (doublecortin)
  • PAFAH 1B 1 (platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase 1B subunit alpha)
112
Q

Along with being involved in neurogenesis and neuronal migration, PAFAH 1B 1 plays an important role in the regulating of what motor protein?

A

Dynein

113
Q

What is Dynein?

A

A motor protein

114
Q

What is meant by the term face validity?

A

The extent to which a test appears to measure what it is intended to measure

115
Q

What is meant by the term construct validity?

A

The extent to which a test measures the psychological construct of interest

116
Q

What is meant by the term content validity?

A

The extent to which a measure is representative of the aspects of what it is trying to measure

117
Q

In a psychological context, what is meant by the term domain?

A

A specific aspect of functioning

118
Q

In the field of psychology, what are the five domains?

A
  • Social
  • Emotional
  • Cognitive
  • Language
  • Physical
119
Q

What is maternal alpha fetoprotein (MAPF)?

A

A protein made by the fetus’ liver which can be used to test for the presence of spina bifida during the second trimester

120
Q

Is MAPF (maternal alpha fetoprotein) present in all pregnancies?

A

Yes - but at a much higher level in fetus’ with neural tube defects

121
Q

As well as spina bifida, what other congenital condition can be tested for by checking MAPF (maternal alpha fetoprotein) levels?

A

Down syndrome

SK298 - Brain, the mind & mental health (19 decks)

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