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Year 2: Psychology of Thinking and Communication > Week 5: Problem Solving & Reasoning > Flashcards

Week 5: Problem Solving & Reasoning Flashcards

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1
Q

What is problem solving:

What does Dunker (1926) think problem solving is?

A
  • Solving a problem doesnt come from memory

- Solving a problem comes from goal-directed behaviour

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2
Q

What is goal-directed behaviour?

A

Behaviour that is focused toward attaining a particular goal

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3
Q

What is problem solving:

What does Mayer (1992) think problem solving is?

A
  • Solving a problem comes from behaviour due to cognitive processes
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4
Q

What methods are used to study how people problem solve?

A
  • Protocol Analysis

- Computer stimulations

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5
Q

What is protocol analysis?

A
  • This is where you ask people how they solve a problem
  • Ask people to talk aloud when they are solving a problem
  • Use this method mainly to explore why people did something
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6
Q

What are the types of problem solving?

A
  • Well-defined

- Ill-defined

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7
Q

What does well-defined problem solving mean?

A

Problems that are precise, and well-structured.

They contain a clear specification of three elements:

  1. Clear start state
  2. Goal state
  3. Operators

Any problem in which the starting position, the allowable positions and the goal state are clearly specified, and a unique solution can be shown to exist.

Example : A maths soultion

3x = 6

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8
Q

What does ill-defined problem solving mean?

A

Ill-defined problems are those that DO NOT have clear goals, solution paths or expected solution

  • More like real life problems
  • Less-logical, no clear options to follow
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9
Q

Strategies for solving well-defined problems:

What is prune the state space strategy?

A
  • This means we want the fewest possible stages to get to the end goal
  • Apply heuristics = rely on less info, allows for faster decision-making that require more info
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10
Q

Strategies for solving well-defined problems:

What is Exploratory strategies?

A
  • Exploratory activities are independent, unstructured activities that provide opportunities to explore ways of interacting with the material provided.
  • Weak heuristics
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11
Q

Strategies for solving well-defined problems:

What is hill climbing?

A
  • Pick a move that takes you closer to a goal
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12
Q

Strategies for solving well-defined problems:

What is means-ends analysis?

A

Most important strategy

  • To solve a well-defined problem give yourself SUBGOALS :
  1. Evaluate task: How do start & goal differ?
  2. Apply operator to reduce difference
  3. If obstacle prevents this : re-evaluate
  4. Create subgoal: remove obstacle
  5. Solve subgoal
  6. Set/solve next subgoal if necessary

Evidence for this strategy:

  • People identify subgoals – people do use this
  • Humans may use this strategy BUT not all problems have clear sub-goals
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13
Q

What are isomorphic problems?

A

Problems that are presented differently but are the same.

  • Surface details (how things are presented) can affect difficulty.

E.g.: a & b are the same problem, a is presented differently to b, however people have difficulty solving problem b because it is presented in a trickier way, even though it requires the same steps as problem a.

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14
Q

Strategies for solving ill-defined problems:

What is analogical reasoning?

A

Mayer states that to solve ill-defined problems we should use a previous problem to help solve a current problem

  • If the specific details in the previous and current problem are similar then a good strategy may be figured out.
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15
Q

What does Analogy mean?

A

Analogy (comparison between one thing and another) is only useful if relevant features are identified in previous problems.

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16
Q

What does schema mean?

A

A framework/plan for solving a problem.

17
Q

What are problem solving schemas?

A

Example:

In maths, students can use schemas to organise info from a word problem in ways that represent the obvious structure of a problem.

18
Q

Is problem solving schemas domain-specific?

A

Yes

Gick & Holoyoak argue that are schema is =

An abstract description of common features & general principles

19
Q

What does reasoning mean?

A

Reasoning is the action of thinking about something in a logical way.

20
Q

What are the types of reasoning?

A
  • Inductive

- Deductive

21
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

Inductive reasoning is a type of logical thinking that involves:

  • Forming generalisations based on specific incidents you’ve experienced
  • Observations you’ve made
  • Facts you know to be true or false

However conclusions could be invalid – NOT TRUE

22
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A

Deductive reasoning is logical thinking that begins with a premise and adding another premise to reach the final argument point.

E.g.:

Premise = All insects have exactly six legs 
Premise = Spiders have eight legs
Conclusion = Therefore, spiders are not insects

So you take two true statements/premises to form a conclusions

  • New information is NOT created
23
Q

What is meant by conditional?

A

The rule for conditional is expressed as =
‘if p then q’ p –> q
E.g.: If you are thirsty there is tea in the pot

  • There will be tea in the pot anyway
24
Q

What is meany by biconditional?

A

The rule for biconditional is expressed as =
p = q
this means that both if p equals q THEN q equals p
E.g.: If I study hard, then I will pass
AND if I pass, then I studied hard

   I will pass if and only if I study hard

So = p –> q
q –> p

25
Q

What are the types of conditional reasoning?

A
  • Modus Pones
  • Modus Tollens
  • Affirming the Consequent
  • Denying the Antecedent
26
Q

What is modus pones?

A

The method of affirming

This is an inference on how we infer information.

E.g.: If it rains, then I will get wet

                               If p then q
  • It is raining p is true
  • Therefore I will get wet Therefore q is true

The modus ponens inferences is ALWAYS VALID

27
Q

What is modus tollens?

A

The method of denying

This refers to inferences of the form :

  1. A = B,
  2. B, therefore A (signifies not)

E.g.: If it rains, then I will get wet

                               If p then q
  • I am not wet not-q is true
  • Therefore it did not rain Therefore not-p is true

The modus tollens inferences is ALWAYS VALID

28
Q

What is affirming the consequent?

A

This refers to inferences of the form :

  1. A = B,
  2. B, therefore A

E.g.: If it rains, then I will get wet

                               If p then q
  • I am wet q is true
  • Therefore it rained Therefore p is true

The affirming the consequent is NOT VALID

  • There are other events that can make me wet instead of the rain
29
Q

What is denying the antecdent?

A

This refers to inferences of the form :

  1. A is true then B is true
  2. A is not true, therefore B is not true

E.g.: If it rains, then I will get wet

                               If p then q
  • It is not raining not-p is true
  • Therefore I am not wet Therefore not-q is true

The affirming the consequent is NOT VALID

  • There are other events that can make me wet instead of the rain
  • This inference means that “if and only if it rains, then I will get wet” OR “only rain can make me wet”

NOT TRUE AT ALL

Year 2: Psychology of Thinking and Communication (8 decks)

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