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Z Phase 1 Others > Week 5 > Flashcards

Week 5 Flashcards

1
Q

What is cartilage?

A

A type of connective tissue

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2
Q

What is cartilage made of?

A

A dense network of collagen or elastin, and the associated matrix materials which will provide strength and resilience.

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3
Q

What is the cartilage extracellular matric deposited by?

A

Chondroblasts, which mature into chondrocytes

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4
Q

Where do the chondrocytes sit in the extracellular matrix?

A

The spaces - lacunae

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5
Q

What is the perichondrium?

A

A sheet of connective tissue that covers the surface of most cartilage throughout the body

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6
Q

What are the classifications of cartilage?

A

Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage

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7
Q

What is hyaline cartilage composed of?

A

Fine type II collagen fibres bound together by a resilient gel like matrix material.

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8
Q

What is hyaline cartilage?

A

The most abundant yet weakest cartilage

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9
Q

Where is hyaline cartilage found?

A

All over the body

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10
Q

What is the function of hyaline cartilage?

A

to provide flexability and support, reducing friction, and absorbing shock. It covers the articular surfaces of joints and provides support to the resp system

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11
Q

What is the function of hyaline cartilage in the foetus?

A

It forms a temporary skeleton, which is then gradually ossified.

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12
Q

What else does hyaline cartilage form?

A

The epiphyseal plates in growing long bones

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13
Q

What is fibrocartilage composed of?

A

Thick bundles of collagen fibres interspersed with chondrocytes in their lacunae

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14
Q

What is fibrocartilage?

A

The strongest cartilage in the body

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15
Q

What is the function of fibrocartilage?

A

provides strength and rigidity

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16
Q

Where is fibrocartilage found?

A

Intervertebral discs, tendon attachment to bones, and the junctions between the flat bones of the pelvis

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17
Q

Does fibrocartilage have a perichondrium?

A

No

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18
Q

What is elastic cartilage?

A

Strong and elastic

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19
Q

What is elastic cartilage composed of?

A

A thread-like network of elastic and collagen fibres interspersed with chondrocytes in their lacunae

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20
Q

What is the function of elastic cartilage?

A

provides and maintains the shapes of various structures

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21
Q

Where is elastic cartilage found?

A

The auricle of the ear, the walls of the external auditory meatus, and the epiglottis of the larynx

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22
Q

How is cartilage nourished?

A

Its avascular so is nourished through diffusion. There is no nerves in cartilage

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23
Q

What is bone?

A

A specialised type of connective tissue which has a mineralised extracellular component

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24
Q

What is the periosteum?

A

A layer of connective tissue that surrounds bone

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25
Q

What is the function of periosteum?

A

To nourish the tissue and provide an interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments

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26
Q

What are the two types of bone?

A

Compact bone and spongy bone (trabecular or cancellous)

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27
Q

What are the differences between the two types of bone?

A

depend on the relative amount of solid matter and the number and size of the spaces they contain

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28
Q

What do all bones have?

A

A superficial thin layer of compact bone around a central mass of spongy bone (except where the spongy bone is replaced by a medullary cavity)

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29
Q

What happens in the medullary cavity and spicules of spongy bone of adult bone?

A

Blood cells and platelets are formed

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30
Q

What is the function of compact bones?

A

Provide strength for weight bearing in long bones, designed for rigidity and attachment of muscles and ligaments

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31
Q

Where is most of the compact bone found?

A

Near the middle of the shaft (body) of the bone, where it has the most risk of buckling

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32
Q

What is the rigidity and elasticity of living bones like?

A

A little bit of elasticity (flexibility) and great rigidity (hardness)

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33
Q

What are the different shapes of bones?

A

Long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones and sesamoid bones

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34
Q

What are long bones?

A

Tubular structures (e.g. humerus and femur)

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35
Q

What are short bones?

A

Cuboidal structures (e.g. bones of the wrist and ankle)

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36
Q

What are flat bones?

A

Serve protective functions - consist of two compact bone plates separated by spongy bone (e.g. skull)

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37
Q

What are sesamoid bones?

A

round or oval bones that develop in tendons

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38
Q

When do bone markings appear?

A

Wherever tendons, ligaments and fascia are attached or where arteries lie adjacent to or enter bones

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39
Q

How do other bone formations occur?

A

In relation to the passage of a tendon or to control the type of movement occurring at a joint

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40
Q

What are the 4 main types of bone cells responsible for?

A

the formation, repair, development and destruction of bone

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41
Q

What are the 4 main types of bone cells?

A

osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

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42
Q

What are osteogenic cells?

A

Unspecialised mesenchymal cells.

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43
Q

where are osteogenic cells found?

A

Predominantly alongside membranes that surround the bones and the blood vessels in bone canals

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44
Q

What do osteogenic cells do?

A

The only bone cells that undergo cell divisions with the resulting cells becoming bone producing cells

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45
Q

What is a mesenchymal cell?

A

A tissue from which most connective tissue is derived

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46
Q

what are osteoblasts?

A

Bone producing cells

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47
Q

Where are osteoblasts found?

A

regions of bone formation such as the surface of growing bones or areas undergoing active bone remodelling

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48
Q

What is the function of an osteoblast?

A

to synthesize and secrete collagen fibres and other organic components.

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49
Q

What are the components synthesized by osteoblasts used for?

A

To build the extracellular matrix of bone tissue and to initiate calcification

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50
Q

What happens when the matrix is formed by osteoblasts?

A

the osteoblasts become trapped in their own secretions and eventually are turned into osteocytes

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51
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

the major cell type found in mature bone

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52
Q

What are osteocytes derived from?

A

osteoblasts

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53
Q

Where are osteocytes found?

A

within the matrix of the bone

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54
Q

What is the function of osteocytes?

A

Maintain the daily metabolism of bone tissue, which includes the exchange of nutrients and waste within the blood

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55
Q

What are osteoclasts?

A

large cells derived from the fusion of monocytes present within the bone marrow or from other blood producing tissue

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56
Q

Where are osteoclasts present?

A

in close contact with the bone surface in bone surface resorption bays and are mainly concentrated within the layer of connective tissue on the inside of the bone

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57
Q

What is the function of osteoclasts?

A

local removal of bone growth and the subsequent remodelling of the bone surface.

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58
Q

What is resorption?

A

local removal of bone growth and the subsequent remodelling of the bone surface.

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59
Q

Where is resorption commonly seen?

A

The normal development, maintenance and repair of bone

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60
Q

How do osteoclasts carry out resorption?

A

They release HCL

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61
Q

What is the organic part of the bone matrix composed of?

A

Osteoid

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62
Q

What is osteoid produced and secreted by?

A

Osteoblasts

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63
Q

What is osteoid maintained by?

A

osteocytes

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64
Q

What is osteoid made up of?

A

Predominantly type 1 collagen fibres and a small proportion of ground substance

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65
Q

How much of bone is made up of inorganic mineral?

A

approximately 50%

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66
Q

What is the inorganic mineral in bone called?

A

Hydroxyapatite

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67
Q

What is hydroxyapatite formed from?

A

Mineral salts which combine with additional salts on the matrix (calcium and phosphate)

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68
Q

What is the process that forms hydroxyapatite called?

A

Calcification

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69
Q

what is a joint?

A

Where two or more bones articulate

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70
Q

What does articulate mean?

A

Where two or more bones meet

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71
Q

what three categories are joints put into structurally?

A

Fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial?

72
Q

What are fibrous joints?

A

connected by dense connective tissue, have no joint cavity. Most are synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic

73
Q

What are cartilaginous joints?

A

Connected by hyaline cartilage and have no joint cavity

74
Q

What are synovial joints?

A

Have a synovial, fluid filled cavity that surrounds the articulating bones

75
Q

what three categories are joints put into functionally?

A

synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis

76
Q

What are synarthrosis joints?

A

joints that don’t provide any movement

77
Q

What are amphiarthrosis joints?

A

Joints that provide only a small degree of movement

78
Q

What are diarthrosis joints?

A

Joints that allow free movement

79
Q

How can joints be classified?

A

By their structural components, the tissue that holds the bones together, their functions or the degree of movement that they provide

80
Q

What are the three types of fibrous joints?

A

suture, gomphosis and syndesmosis

81
Q

Where are suture joints found?

A

between the plate bones of the skull

82
Q

Where are gomphosis joints found?

A

the tooth junction

83
Q

What are syndesmosis joints?

A

two bones are held together by an interosseous ligament. These joints are amphiarthrotic

84
Q

What does an interosseous ligament consist of?

A

long collagenous fibres

85
Q

What are the two types of cartilaginous joints?

A

Synchondrosis and symphyses

86
Q

What types of bone are there?

A

long bone
short bone
irregular bone
flat bone
sesamoid bone

87
Q

give an example of a long bone

A

humerus

88
Q

give an example of a short bone

A

carpal bone

89
Q

give an example of an irregular bone

A

vertebra

90
Q

give an example of a flat bone

A

sternum

91
Q

give an example of a sesamoid bone

A

patella

92
Q

Describe the diaphysis of a bone

A

main shaft-like portion
hollow and cylindrical shape with thick compact bone on the outside
strong but not too heavy

93
Q

describe the epiphysis of a bone

A

both ends of a long bone
bulbous shape which provides space for muscle attachment
red marrow fills the spaces of cancellous bone

94
Q

describe the metaphysis of a bone

A

the region where the epiphysis and diaphysis meet

95
Q

describe the periosteum

A

dense, white, fibrous membrane
covers bone except for joint surfaces
periosteum fibres penetrate the underlying bone
tendon fibres and periosteum fibres interlace to attach muscle to bone
contains bone remodelling cells and blood vessels

96
Q

Describe articular cartilage

A

thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the articular surfaces of bones
resilient material that cushions jolts and blows

97
Q

describe the medullary cavity

A

hollow space in diaphysis of long bone.
in adults filled with yellow marrow

98
Q

Describe the endosteum

A

thin, fibrous membrane that lines the medullary cavities and spaces of cancellous bone
contains bone cells and their precursors

99
Q

Describe compact bone

A

cylindrical-shaped osteons or haversian systems
each osteon surrounds a canal which runs longitudinally through the bone

100
Q

Describe cancellous bone

A

no osteons
tiny needle-like branches called trabeculae
nutrients and waste products diffuse via tiny canaliculi that extend to the surface of the very thin bony branches

101
Q

Describe osteoclasts

A

large cells with many nuclei
share lineage with blood cells (macrophages)
Precursors circulate in blood and bone marrow
When RANK-ligand (from osteoblasts) binds with RANK receptors - mature osteoclast form from fusion of progenitor cells
osteoclasts resorb bone
release acids and enzymes
then undergo apoptosis

102
Q

What is OPG?

A

osteoprotogerin
binds to RANK-ligand so can regulate osteoclast activity

103
Q

Describe osteoblasts

A

cuboidal and columnar shape with central nucleus
found on bone surface
from mesenchymal stem cells
osteoblasts make proteins to form the organic matrix of the bone and regulate mineralisation
Receptors for vitamin D, oestrogen and parathyroid hormone
secrete RANK-ligand to activate osteoclasts
can differentiate into osteocytes, lining cells or undergo apoptosis

104
Q

Describe osteocytes

A

long branches that allow them to contact each other and the lining cells at the bone surface
sense mechanical strain
secrete growth factors to activate lining cells or osteoblasts

105
Q

Describe lining cells

A

flat and pancake-shaped
responsible for immediate release of calcium
Protect bone from chemicals that dissolve crystals
receptors for hormoes and factors that effect bone remodelling

106
Q

What are BMPs?

A

bone morphogenetic proteins
produced in bone or bone marrow
bind to BMP receptors on mesenchymal cells
cells produce cbfa1 - a transcription factor
cells mature into mature osteoblasts

107
Q

Describe IGFs in regards to bone

A

Insulin-like growth factors
produced by osteoblastic cells in response to parathyroid hormone, oestrogen or BMPs
released from matrix during bone remodelling and stimulate osteoblastic cell replication

108
Q

Describe RANK-ligand

A

a cytokine that is produced in response to systemic hormones such as 1,25dihydroxyvitaminD3 and other cytokines such as IL6
Induces osteoclast development

109
Q

What hormones increase bone resorption?

A

parathyroid hormone
glucocorticoids
thyroid hormone
vitamin D metabolites

110
Q

What hormones decrease bone resorption

A

calcitonin
gonadal steroids

111
Q

what hormones increase bone formation?

A

growth hormone
vitamin D metabolites
gonodal steroids

112
Q

What hormones decrease bone formation?

A

glucocorticoids

113
Q

what are the main type of inorganic salts found in bone?

A

hydroxyapatite crytals

114
Q

What is the organic matric of bone composed of?

A

collagenous fibres and “ground substance”

115
Q

name features of a synovial joint

A

articular cartilage
synovial cavity
synovial membrane
joint capsule

116
Q

what are the two names for the three kinds of joints?

A

synarthroses (fibrous)
ampiarthroses (cartilaginous)
diarthrosis (synovial)

117
Q

Describe synarthrosis movement

A

immovable

118
Q

describe ampiarthoses movement

A

slightly moverable

119
Q

Describe diarthrosis movement

A

freely moveable

120
Q

What types of fibrous joints are there?

A

Syndesmoses
sutures
gomphoses

121
Q

What are syndesmoses joints?

A

e.g. distal end of radius and ulna
ligament connects bones

122
Q

What are sutures?

A

only found in the skull
interlocking teeth-like projections

123
Q

What are gomphoses?

A

found at the root of the teeth
periodontal membrane

124
Q

What type of cartilaginous joints are there?

A

synchondrosis
symphyses

125
Q

What are synchondroses?

A

e.g. between first rib and sternum
hyaline cartilage between articulating surfaces

126
Q

What are symphyses?

A

e.g. pubic symphysis
fibrocartilage disk

127
Q

What kinds of synovial joints are there?

A

uniaxial - hinge, pivot
biaxial - saddle, condyloid
multiaxial - ball and socket, gliding

128
Q

Describe the uniaxial joints

A

hinge - e.g. elbow, flexion and extension
pivot e.g. between C1 and C2, rotation

129
Q

Describe the biaxial joints

A

saddle - e.g thumb joint. flexion, extension, adduction and abduction
condyloid - between radius and carpal bones - flexion, extension, adduction and abduction

130
Q

Describe the multi axial joints

A

ball and socket - e.g. shoulder - wide range
gliding - e.g between articulating facets of vertebrae. Gliding

131
Q

what are the three types of cartilage?

A

hyaline cartilage
elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage

132
Q

How do chondrocytes get their nutrients?

A

only through diffusion from the periosteum or synovial fluid - cartilage is avascular unlike bone

133
Q

Describe hyaline cartilage

A

most common
both collagen and elastic fibres
articular surfaces of bones, tracheal rings, bronchi of lungs, tip of the nose

134
Q

Describe elastic cartilage

A

large numbers of elastic fibres
gives form to external ear, epiglottis, eustachian tubes

135
Q

Describe fibrocartialge

A

small quantities of matrix and abundant fibrous elements
strong, rigid
pubis symphyses, IV disks, near site of attachment of some large tendons to bones

136
Q

what are the main changes seen in an osteoarthritic joint?

A

thickened capsule
cyst formation and sclerosis of subchondral bone
fibrillated cartilage
osteophytic lipping
synovial hypertrophy
altered contour of bone

137
Q

What causes damage to cartilage in OA?

A

decreases in water content, proteoglycan synthesis, collagen cross linking, size of GAGs and hyaluronic acid
traumatic damage

138
Q

What is osteoarthritis?

A

progressive disorder of the joints caused by gradual loss of cartilage and resulting in the development of bony spurs and cysts and the margin of the joint

139
Q

What are the causes of OA?

A

primary - degenerative
secondary - trauma, hip dysplasia, infection, diabetes

140
Q

who is most affected by OA?

A

women over 45

141
Q

What is seen in an X-ray of an OA joint?

A

joint space narrowing
osteophytes
subchondral bone sclerosis
cyst formation

142
Q

What is ECM?

A

extracellular matrix
a complex network of proteins and polysaccharides
secreted locally
provides structural, adhesive and biochemical signalling support

143
Q

What makes up ECM?

A

fibres - collagen and elastin
ground substance - proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins

144
Q

What are the functions of ECM?

A

mechanical and structural support
tensile strength
determines cellular movment

145
Q

what are the five classes of macromolecules found in ECM?

A

collagens
elastin
proteoglycans
glycosaminoglycans
other glycoproteins

146
Q

where is type I collagen found?

A

dermis, tendons, ligaments, bones

147
Q

where is type II collagen found?

A

hyaline cartilage

148
Q

Where is type III collagen found?

A

liver, bone marrow, lymphoid organs

149
Q

Where is type IV collagen found?

A

basement membrane

150
Q

Where is type V collagen found?

A

linker to basement membrane

151
Q

Describe GAGs

A

also called mucopolysaccharides
chains of repeating disaccharide units
carbohydrate component of proteoglycans

152
Q

What GAG is found in the synovial fluid?

A

hyaluronic acid

153
Q

What GAGs are found in cartilage?

A

chondroitin sulphate and keratan sulphate

154
Q

What GAG is found in the basement membrane?

A

Heparin sulphate

155
Q

what makes aggrecan and where is it found?

A

chondroitin sulphate and keratan sulphate
cartilage

156
Q

What is perlecan made from and where is it found?

A

heparan sulphate
basement membrane

157
Q

What is syndecan made from and where is it found?

A

chondroitin sulphate and keratan sulphate
cartialge

158
Q

What is decorin made from and where is it found?

A

chondroitin sulphate and dermatan sulphate
wide spread

159
Q

Give examples of 5 glycoproteins

A

fibrillar
fibronectin
laminin
entactin
tenascin

160
Q

What does fibrillin do?

A

controls deposition and orientation of elastins

161
Q

what does fibronectin do?

A

linker role in BM

162
Q

What does laminin do?

A

primary organiser in BM

163
Q

What does entactin do?

A

linker role in BM

164
Q

What does tenascin do?

A

linker role in connective tissue

165
Q

How is collagen made?

A

synthesised as pro collagen
post-translational modification - glycosylation and hydroxylation
assembled as triple helix

166
Q

How is elastin made?

A

synthesised as tropo elastin
post-translational modification - hydroxylation
assembled in fibrillin scaffold, cross-linked fibres

167
Q

What are the three layers of the basement membrane?

A

lamina lucida
lamina densa
lamina fibroreticularis

168
Q

what is the basement membrane composed of?

A

collagen
laminin
perlecan
entactan

169
Q

what are the functions of the basement membrane?

A

support
binding to underlying connective tissues
mediates signalling
determines cell polarity
permits flow of nutrients
path for cell migration
barrier to downward growth

170
Q

Give examples of disorders of BM

A

cancer - epithelial tumours malignant when breach BM
Diabetes - thickening of BM of glomerulus alters function
epidermolysis bullosa - attachment of epidermis to BM
Good pastures syndrome - autoantibodies to collagen IV destroy BM in lung and glomerulus

171
Q

A condition caused by problem in elastin

A

supravalvular aortic stenosis

172
Q

A condition causes by a problem with fibrillin I

A

Marstan syndrome

173
Q

A condition caused by a problem with collagen

A

etlers danlos syndrome

174
Q

a condition caused by problem in keratan sulphate

A

macular corneal dystrophy

175
Q

a condition caused by problem with perlecan

A

Silverman-Handermaker type of dyssegmental dysplasia (DDSH) lethal dwarfism

Z Phase 1 Others (11 decks)

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