Week 3 - Nature, Nurture and Gender Development Flashcards
Genes
Basic units of hereditary passed down from parents to offspring. Consists of specific DNA sequences that carry instructions for offspring’s characteristics.
Environmental Factors
Factors that influence how genes get expressed, as psychological or physical traits.
Gene-by-Environment Interaction
Genetic tendency under certain environmental circumstances.
Gene-by-Environment Interaction Types
Passive: Parents creating certain environments that can’t be separated from their genetic makeup.
Evocative: A person’s genetic makeup invokes certain treatment from others.
Active: A person’s genetics influence them to choose certain environments.
Impact of Nurture on Nature
Nurture (environment) can influence nature (biological factors).
Diathesis-Stress Model
People with a genetic predisposition for a disorder, only experience the disorder under certain stressful circumstances.
Epigenetics
Study of how behaviours or environment influence whether a gene gets expressed.
Epigenetic changes are reversible, does not change DNA sequence just how your body reads the sequence.
Epigenetic Marks
Molecular structures that sit on genes and instruct them to activate or deactivate.
Sex Differentiation
Process of an embryo transforming into individuals with male, female or intersex genitalia.
Biological Sex
Product of genes, chromosomes, hormones, internal sex organs and external genitalia.
Usually align to create a typical male or female individual.
Mini Puberty
A period of about 6 months after birth when a female’s estrogen & testosterone levels and a male’s testosterone levels rise.
Differences of Sex Development (DSDs)
When a person’s sex development is different to others.
Rare conditions involving genes, hormones, and reproductive organs.
Optimal Sex
Binary sex that doctors and parents perceive as the best option for a newborn whose genitalia seem atypical at birth.
Optimal Sex Policy
Policy developed by (Money et al., 1975) to change intersex newborns to fit into into a sex binary through surgery, and hormone treatments.
Professionals today recommend to wait until the child is old enough to consent.
Gender Dysphoria
Distress arising from a mismatch between assigned sex at birth and own sense of gender.
Estimate Genetic Heritability
Looks at the relative roles of biology vs. socialization in gender identity.
Gender Confirmation Procedures
Sought by transgender
individuals to bring their physical bodies into alignment with their psychological identities.
Surgery, hormone treatments, therapy (speech).
Sex Differences in Brain Structures
Most individuals have a “unique mosaic” of female and male-typical traits patterns in brain structure.
Brain differences may arise prenatally and continue to evolve.
Plasticity/Neuroplasticity
Occurs mainly during adolescence, brain’s ability to reorganize and adapt physically to life experiences and environmental factors.
Dynamic Systems Theory (DST)
Sex differences in body, brain and behaviour are little at birth but grow larger through interaction with caregivers and gender expectations.
Neurosexism
When people interpret findings from neuroscience research that reinforce gender stereotypes, without valid supporting evidence.
Neuroethics
Prompts neuroscientists to reflect on their perspective and research methods, and to consider implications of their findings.
Evolutionary Theory of Sex Differences
Theory that states sex differences occurred due to reproductive problems in the past, what was done to maximize survival and reproduction.
Sexual Selection
Allows specific traits to influence one’s change of reproduction and passing on its genes.
Two types: Intrasexual and Intersexual
Intrasexual Selection
Competition between members of the same sex for mates (usually males).
Intersexual Selection
When members of one sex choose a member of the opposite sex.
Parental Investment Theory
The sex that invests more in parenting usually becomes more selective in choosing a mate.
Preferably with more resources.
Biosocial Constructionist Theory of Sex Differences
How biological differences in men and women lead to labour divisions in society.
Implications of Biosocial Constructionist Theory of Sex Differences
Children learning that men and women must have different skills.
Shaping expectations about an individual’s qualities and abilities.
Interactionist Theory
Recognizes interactions between nature and nurture.
Social Learning Theories
Emphasizes on external factors shape children’s gender development.
Cognitive Theories
Emphasizes on children’s growing cognitive abilities shape gender development.
Socialization
Ways in which society conveys norms and expectations for an individuals behaviour.
Schema
Mental framework of thought and behaviour that helps interpret information about the world.
Sex and gender are important schemas for children to learn.
Sources of Socialization: Parents
Parents create gender after finding out the sex of their child.
Children of same-sex parents tend to endorse fewer gender stereotypes.
Some single parents adopt a gender-egalitarian approach.
Gender-Egalitarian
Belief that men and women are equal, and should be treated equally.
Sources of Socialization: Siblings
Play a role in a child’s gender development, older siblings having more of an influence.
Sources of Socialization: Teachers
Influence gender development by unding gendered language and emphasizing binary sex.
Sources of Socialization: Peers
Socialization of children in gendered peer groups may lead to sex-typical styles of behaviour, relationship styles and emotion expression.
Sources of Socialization: Media
Media tends to sexualize female characters and put male characters in positions of leadership.
Media lacks visibility of diverse races, and models sex-typical toy preferences.
Sex-Typed Toy Preferences
Sex difference in childhood emerges across cultures.
By age 2 girls prefer to play with dolls and boys prefer to play with cars.
Preferential Looking
Method for determining preferences of pre-verbal infants.
Show infant two objects and see which one they spend more time looking at.
Cognitive Developmental Theory
A child’s understanding of gender goes through 3 stages of increasing maturity.
Age 2-3: Gender Identity
Age 4-5: Gender Stability
Age 5+: Gender Constancy
Gender Schema Theory
Mental networks of information about gender.
Guides people into interpreting, processing and remembering gender-related information.
Leads people into developing self-concepts about gender.
Developmental Intergroup Theory
Shows how group dynamics contribute to gender stereotypes and prejudices in children.
Gender Self-Socialization Model
Children construct their gender identity through their understanding of gender categories and norms.
Constructivist-Ecologist Theory
Emphasizes the development of gender schemes through interactions and observations with others.
Used to guide gender related responses and behaviours.
Gender Nonconformity in Childhood
Such as cross-play preferences and gender identity.
Parents vary in how much they allow kids to display gender nonconformity.
Biased-Interaction Theory
Explains how people identify their gender by comparing their sense of self with what they know about social understandings of gender.
“Milestone” Model of Transgender Identity
Several major turning points in gender identity development by transmen and transwomen.
Risks: Hiding feeling to avoid hostility, substance abuse, potential for mental health issues.
Puberty in Western Cultures
Girls are more likely than boys to experience negative outcomes of puberty.
Girls experiencing early puberty may face negative body images and increased risky behaviours.
Boys experiencing early puberty may face anti-social behaviours and mood disturbances, but also some benefits like increased self-esteem.
Gender Development in Adolescence
Parents with dtradidiotnl gender role beliefs exhibit a double standard in adolescence, giving fewer privileges to daughters.
Adolescents undergo instability with parents as they want more autonomy.
Adolescents in Western cultures have more cross-sex relationships compared to non-western cultures.
What is the ideal man?
Ideal men are expected to be competitive, aggressive, avoid femininity and to provide for their family.
Hegemonic Masculinity
The culturally ideal form of manhood that preferers the dominant position of men in society.
Precarious Manhood Hypothesis
Manhood is a social status hard to get and easy to lose, needing constant validation.
Implication are more stress, and higher aggression
Experts say this is not genuine manhood but merely status.
What is the ideal woman?
Ideal women are caretakers and mothers, and spend time beautifying themselves.
Motherhood Mandate
The norm that states women should have children, still operative in present society.
Park et al. (2015)
Mothers are seen are more “natural” and “real” (essentialist) than fathers.
Due to physical changes during motherhood.
Chrisler (2013)
Women are expected to achieve “real” womanhood through the pursuit of beauty and by being “good” mothers.
Sex Verification Testing
Seeks to verify sex through various indicators.
Microbiome
System of 10 trillion microbial microorganisms that live in the human body.
Communicates with the brain along the gut-brain axis.
Gonads
Sex organs (ovaries and testes) that produce sex cells (eggs and sperm) and sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone).
Genital Ridge
Precursor to gonads, appears identical in male and female human embryos.
Genital Tubercle
External genitalia of human embryos, later develops into the clitoris or penis.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
Condition in which the body over manufactures androgens (hormones that develop male characteristics).
Females (XX) with CAH have internal female reproductive organs but external more masculine genitalia.
Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS)
The cells of the body do not respond to the influence of androgens.
Disrupts sex development in genetic males (XY) not genetic females (XX).
Partial Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (PAIS)
Partial inability of cells to respond to androgens.
Only disrupts genetic males (XY).
Monozygotic Twins
Identical twins, develop from a single fertilized egg, share 100% or close to 100% of their genes.
Dizygotic Twins
Fraternal twins, develop from two separate eggs, share about 50% of their genes.
Machine Learning
Method of data analysis that trains computers to detect patterns, learn from data with minimal human intervention.
