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2015PSY > Week 3 > Flashcards

Week 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory

A
  • Birth to age 2 years

- Understand and act on the world using sensorimotor or behavioural schemes

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2
Q

Sensorimotor substages

A

*look up image

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3
Q

Object permanence

A

Developmental progression

  • Under 6 months: no object permanence
  • Emerges Substage 4
  • > 8 – 12 months: search but A-not-B errors
  • > Child searches where last found an object, not where we moved it (8 month old baby failing A not B test)
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4
Q

Criticisms of Piaget

A

Underestimated infant abilities

  • > But correct general trend
  • > Development not so stage like

Correct that sensorimotor skill assists some aspects of cognitive development
-> E.g., crawling assists depth perception and retrieving hidden objects

But evidence of some conceptual understanding before motor skills

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5
Q

Core knowledge perspective

A 
Innate knowledge systems predispose us to understand the world and new information
But require experience to extend this innate knowledge 
Suggested domains:
- Physical 
- Linguistic
- Psychological
- Numerical
- Morality?
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6
Q

Information processing perspective

A

*look up image

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7
Q

Cognitive gains in infancy and toddlerhood

A

Attention

  • improved efficiency, ability to shift focus
  • less attraction to novelty, improved sustained attention

Memory

  • longer retention intervals
  • development of recall by second half of first year

Categorisation
- gradual shift from perceptual to conceptual categorisation in toddlerhood

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8
Q

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

A

Like Piaget, constructivist, but emphasised social mediation of cognitive construction
-> Child as “little apprentice” (cf. Piaget’s “little scientist”)

Knowledge constructed via:

  • Collective dialogues
  • Collaborative learning
  • Guided participation, scaffolding
  • Imitation
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9
Q

Language development - nativist approach

A

Chomsky (1957) Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

  • universal grammar hard-wired
  • maturational unfolding
  • fine-tuned by experience

Evidence

  • Universal aspects of early language
  • Uniquely human
  • Specialised area left hemisphere
  • Sensitive period 6 – 12 years
  • look up image - language acquisition
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10
Q

Critique of nativist approach

A
  • Hard to identify universal grammar
  • Slower and more error-prone language acquisition than innate ability would predict
  • Learning is important in language
  • Brain plasticity shows other areas of brain capable of supporting language
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11
Q

Social interactionist view

A
  • Children cue caregivers to provide necessary language experiences
  • Language acquired via social interaction
  • > Debate over whether there are also innate or specialised language abilities
  • Social competence and language experience affect language progress
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12
Q

Characteristics of infants directed speech (IDS)

A
  • higher pitch
  • simple vocabulary
  • sound substitution
  • short sentences
  • fluctuating intonation
  • exaggerated expressions & gestures
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13
Q

Infant directed speech

A

IDS not essential but interaction is
-> e.g., Kaluli people of Papua New Guinea do not use “baby talk”

IDS plays a role in gaining attention, maintains communication
-> Provides opportunities for learning

Babies who are talked to/with more show greater language development

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14
Q

Infant communication development

A
  • 4 months: interest in turn-taking games, gaze in direction adults looking
  • 6 months: babbling initially universal sounds
  • 6 - 9 mths: developing understanding of single words
  • 10-11 months: joint attention
  • 12 months: universality of babbling lost
  • 9 – 12 mths: understands simple instructions
  • 12 months: pre-verbal gesturing
  • 10-15 months: first words
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15
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

single word conveys whole idea or whole sentence

-> word + context, gesture, intonation

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16
Q

First words and two words utterances

A

18-24 months:

  • over-extension
  • under-extension
  • telegraphic speech
  • correct word order associated with improved compliance
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17
Q

Child temperament and language development

A

Child temperament

  • > E.g. emotional reactivity diverts children from processing language.
  • > Quantity and richness and caregiver conversations
  • > Referential vs. expressive style-What is language for?
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18
Q

Eriksons psychosocial theory - trust V mistrust

A

TRUST vs MISTRUST (0 – 1 year)
Successfully resolved by experiencing sympathetic, loving care
-> Broader focus than Freud’s narrow focus on oral gratification via breast feeding
Trust –> Prime adaptive ego quality: hope
-> Minimal fear or apprehension about future
-> Confidence to explore wider world
Implications for cognitive and social development
Mistrust –> Core pathology: withdrawal

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19
Q

Eriksons psychosocial theory - autonomy V shame and doubt

A

Importance of parental handling of emerging desire for autonomy
-> Cf. Freud’s narrower focus on toilet training
Over-controlling and under-controlling by parents both problematic
Criticism and punishment for failed attempts at autonomy –> shame & doubt

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20
Q

Emotional development - happiness

A
  • Social smile around 6 – 10 weeks
  • Think about evocative gene-environment correlations
  • Relation to language and cognitive development
  • Relation to parent-child relationship
21
Q

Emotional development - anger

A

Distress shown from birth

  • > Crying
  • > Mothers (main caregivers) can generally recognise different cries for discomfort, anger, pain and respond accordingly
  • -> Relevant to resolving Trust crisis
  • -> Relevant to establishing secure attachment
  • As intentional behaviour increases, frustration and anger more frequent
  • > The terrible twos!
22
Q

Emotional development - fear

A 
Intense Stranger Anxiety around 9 months
more likely or intense if :
- in unfamiliar environment
- away from mother
- stranger is an adult
- stranger is passive and unsmiling
- stranger is a bearded male

Separation Anxiety: from 8 – 9 mths, peaks around 15 months

23
Q

Self-conscious emotion

A

Higher-order feelings including:

  • Shame, guilt, embarrassment, envy, pride
  • Appear between 18-24 months
24
Q

Self development - self recognition

A
  • Visual self-recognition emerges around 20 months
  • > Rouge test
  • Recognise self in photographs by around 2 years
  • Early foundation in cause-and-effect experiences
  • Cultural differences
  • > Acquired earlier with distal parenting styles that emphasise independence cf. proximal parenting styles that emphasise interdependence
25
Q

Self development - outcomes of developing self awareness

A
  • emergence self-conscious emotions
  • improvements in effortful control, compliance, & delay of gratification
  • Combined with advancing cognitive, language, and social skills supports developing empathy.
26
Q

Emergence of self regulation

A
  • Emotional self-regulation: strategies to self-adjust emotional state to a comfortable level in order to be able to meet goals
  • Important for autonomy, cognitive development, and social skills
27
Q

Effortful control

A
  • Capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan & execute a more adaptive response
  • Utilises executive functions: inhibitory control, focusing & shifting attention
  • > Aspects of information processing system
  • -> Rely on underlying brain development
  • Important aspect of temperament
28
Q

Parenting to foster emotional regulation and effortful control

A
  • Appropriate stimulation
  • Sensitivity and responsiveness
  • Shaping socially approved ways of expressing emotions
  • > boys more training in controlling negative emotions than girls
  • > Girls “naturally” better at self-control of negative emotion
  • > cultural differences
  • Effective management of tantrums
29
Q

Cognitive development and motor development to foster emotional regulation and effortful control

A

2) Cognitive development (and underlying pre-frontal cortical brain development)
- Executive functioning esp. control of attention
- Language development
- > How might language development influence emotional regulation?

3) Motor development
- How would motor development assist emotional self-regulation?

30
Q

Temperament

A

“constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation” (Rothbart & Bates, 1998, p.109)
-> an individual’s behavioural style and characteristic way of emotionally responding

  • Foundation of later personality
31
Q

Thomas and Chess (1977) New York Longitudinal study - 9 aspects of temperament

A
  • Activity level
  • Intensity of reaction
  • Rhythmicity
  • Attention Span/Persistence
  • Distractibility
  • Threshold responsiveness
  • Quality of mood
  • Adaptability
  • Approach/Withdrawal
32
Q

Temperament types

A

Three types:
- Easy 40%- adjust easily to new situations, quickly establish routines, are generally cheerful, and easy to calm.

  • Slow-to-warm up 15 %- inactive, initially unwilling to approach, adapt or be distracted but adjusts with time.
  • Difficult 10%- irregular, reactive, unhappy, hard to distract, slow to adapt
  • Average/mixed: 35%
33
Q

Temperamental stability

A
  • Temperament is relatively stable over time
  • Very few children change radically
    BUT, temperament can be modified through experiences, especially parenting style
  • More “difficult” infant temperament -> behavioural and emotional adjustment problems in early childhood and beyond
  • Especially if there are other risks in the child’s life
34
Q

Temperamental stability after 3 years

A
  • Temperament is a better predictor of later functioning after effortful control emerges (about 3 years)
  • Longer-term: childhood and adolescent predictors of better functioning in young adulthood
  • > better emotional control
  • > less emotional reactivity
35
Q

“Goodness of fit” Thomas and Chess (1977)

A

“Goodness of fit”: the degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment

  • Lack of fit -> parent socialisation efforts to recognise the child’s particular style but also to modify that to better fit the environment
  • E.g., difficult temperament, shyness
36
Q

Attachment - the first relationship

A
  • Psychoanalytic theories: emphasis on feeding
  • Behaviourism emphasis on classical conditioning- also focused on feeding
  • Harlow & Harlow’s work with rhesus monkeys discounted role of feeding
37
Q

Attachment theory

A

John Bowlby influenced by psychoanalytic background and Lorenz’ imprinting work
-> Ethological theory: human attachment is an evolved response that promotes survival

Attachment: active, reciprocal tie that endures across time and space; leads to desire for contact, distress at separation

Development of internal working model regarding availability of attachment figures that influences later relationships

38
Q

Development of attachment (Ainsworth)

A

0 – 6 weeks: Pre-attachment; general sociability, indiscriminant
6 wks – 6/8 months: Attachment-in-the-making
–> 4 months: differential sociability
6/8 mths – 18mths: Clear-cut attachment to primary caregiver
-> Stranger Anxiety
-> Separation Anxiety
-> Emergence of secondary attachments

39
Q

Attachment classification: Ainsworth’s strange situation

A

All children have developed an attachment relationship by 12 months
-> Quality differs
Measured using the Strange Situation Test
-> Critical episode is the reaction to the reunion with caregiver
-> But also look for use of mother as secure base, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety

40
Q

Type A: insecure avoidant: 15%

A
  • minimal interest in caregiver
  • minimal distress at separation
  • minimal stranger anxiety
  • does not seek out caregiver on reunion
41
Q

Type B: secure: approx 60%

A
  • seeks caregiver if distressed
  • separation anxiety
  • joy upon reunion
  • caregiver provides secure base for exploration
42
Q

Type C: Anxious-Ambivalent or Insecure-Resistant: (about 10%)

A
  • minimal exploration
  • preoccupied with caregiver
  • resists separation but resistant upon reunion
43
Q

Type D: disorganised/disorientated: about 15%

A
  • “fright without solution” (Main & Hesse, 1990)
  • associated with maltreatment, residential care, maternal mental illness
  • Bizarre behaviours- contradictory, incomplete, stereotypes, freezing/stilling, disoriented or apprehensive in presence of parent
44
Q

Important factors for child temperament types

A

Opportunity

  • Risks from early institutional care where no opportunity to form relationship with one or a few caregivers
  • -> Think about the Romanian orphans study
  • Up to 6 years, late adoptees can securely attach to parents, but some difficulties for late adoptees
  • -> Higher rates of insecure attachments
45
Q

Caregiving quality

A

Sensitivity

  • accurate identification of infant communication and needs
  • positive emotions
  • interest and pleasure in infant

Interactional Synchrony
- awareness of appropriate level of stimulation

46
Q

Parenting behaviours and attachment styles

A

secure:
responsive, positive emotions, tender handling, sensitivity and synchrony

avoidant:
over-stimulating, intrusive

resistant:
minimal interaction, inconsistent care

disorganised:
dysfunctional caregiving

47
Q

Infant characteristics

A

Infant Characteristics
Temperament
-> difficult infants: insecure attachments more likely
Heritability virtually 0
-> Experiences of parent-child interactions important

Family Factors

  • Stress
  • Financial difficulties
  • Marital problems
48
Q

Secure attachment style consistently associated with

A
  • higher self-esteem
  • more self-confidence
  • more ego-resilience
  • higher popularity
  • better cognitive skills
  • better coping skills
  • greater enthusiasm & persistence for learning
  • higher curiosity
  • higher independence from parents
  • fewer problem behaviours

2015PSY (11 decks)

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