Module 7

Question 1

Erikson’s crisis: Industry V Inferiority

Answer 1

• look up image

- children entering schooling, trying out new activities and tasks

Question 2

Self-concept

Answer 2

• Self-concept becoming increasingly detailed, evaluative
• Often based on social comparisons
• Related to cognitive development – perspective-taking
• Form an “ideal” self: discrepancy-based processing in relation to actual self -> size of discrepancy influences self-esteem

Question 3

Structure and changes - self-esteem (image)

Answer 3

Structure

• 4 domains: academic competence, social competence, physical/athletic competence, physical appearance
• Harter (2012) adds behavioural competence: being well-behaved & not getting in trouble

Changes in self-esteem

• Early childhood: unrealistically high
• Approx 8 yrs: decreases to more realistic level due to social comparisons

Question 4

What influences self-esteem

Answer 4

• cultural influences
• parenting influences
• achievement-related attributions

Question 5

Cultural influences on self-esteem

Answer 5

Gender stereotyping & cultural emphasis on appearance

Question 6

Parenting influences on self-esteem

Answer 6

Authoritative parenting related to higher self-esteem

Indulgent: artificially inflated self-esteem

Question 7

Achievement-related attributions

Answer 7

Mastery-oriented attributions: credit success to ability, failures to external sources, lack of effort, ability is dynamic

Learned helplessness: success due to luck/external influences; ability is static

Question 8

Learned helplessness

Answer 8

• Learned helplessness is associated with: inferiority, passivity, lack of initiative & perseverance, self-defeating attitudes,
• focus on obtaining positive evaluations & avoiding negative ones, poor self-regulation & metacognition, poor learning strategies, higher likelihood of dropping out, esp. females

Question 9

Achievement-related attributions are influenced by

Answer 9

• Parent and teacher messages
• Dweck (2006) “The perils and promise of praise”
• > Praising students’ intelligence (person praise) gives them a short burst of pride, followed by a long string of negative consequences.
• > Influences the child’s “mindset”

Question 10

Child mindset - fixed mindset

Answer 10

• focus on how others judge them (smart/dumb)
• Effort makes them feel dumb- “If you have the ability, you should not have to exert effort”
• With age, increasing tendency to cheat
• Person praise fosters fixed mindset

Question 11

Child mindset - growth mindset

Answer 11

• focus on learning/development
• Correct mistakes
• See effort as positive, opportunity for growth
• See ability as malleable
• Process praise fosters hardy motivation

Question 12

Emotional development

Answer 12

• Self-conscious emotions: pride & guilt become increasingly internalised
• Appreciation of mixed emotions & contradictory cues
• Understanding/ability to disguise negative emotions
• Influenced by parents’ emotional communication

Question 13

Emotion regulation

Answer 13

2 strategies emerge by 10yrs:

• Problem-focused coping: take action directly to change/address the issue
• Emotion-focused coping: internal, aimed at managing feelings about a problem

Emotional self-efficacy: confidence in ability to manage own emotions
- Influenced by how parents have responded to emotions earlier

Question 14

Moral development

Answer 14

• Have now internalised moral rules
• Due to cognitive development, can process moral dilemmas, think through situations
• Increased appreciation for context & intention; less rigid application of morality

Question 15

Friendships

Answer 15

By 8 years, friendships increasingly characterised by:

• > Mutuality, loyalty, sharing, & intimacy
• > Trust
• > Shared interests & demographics
• > Smaller circle
• > More stability in high quality friendships

Question 16

Friendships and gender differences

Answer 16

9 - 10 years: 
-> 1 best friend, esp. girls
-> strong sex- segregation
11 - 12 years:
 -> girls interested in boys
13 - 15 years: 
-> boys interested in girls

Question 17

Peer relationships

Answer 17

• Increasingly important context for development
• Peer groups: collectives of children that generate standards of behaviour, form a social structure & group identity
• Rejection can lead to isolation, anxiety; opportunity to acquire social skills declines

Question 18

Peer acceptance: sociometric status

Answer 18

*look up image

Question 19

Peer sociometric status - positive

Answer 19

• Positive: many positive votes
• Popular pro-social: academic + social competence
• > Leaders, confident, good emotional development, advanced TOM, moral development
• > Sensitive, friendly, cooperative communication
• Popular anti-social: athletic competence, no academic competence (boys); defy authority
• > Relationally aggressive
• > Likability decreases with age

Question 20

Peer sociometric status - negative

Answer 20

• Rejection: Many negative votes
• Rejected-aggressive: conflict, physical & relational aggression, hyperactive, inattentive & impulsive
• > Immature, poorly developed social cognition, social skills
• > High risk to become bullies (increases during adolescence)
• Rejected-withdrawn: passive, socially awkward
• > Aware of rejection; loneliness & low self-esteem
• > Risk of being victimized

Question 21

Peer sociometric status - controversial: blend of positive and negative

Answer 21

• > Attention seeking, high activity levels
• > Pro-social & anti-social behaviour; engage in relational aggression

Neglected children

• > Low rates of interaction, but socially skilled; shy & withdrawn
• > Can cooperate well & form friendships; prefer adult companionship
• > Do not report loneliness, unhappiness
• > Can increase popularity in a new school

Question 22

Family influences - divorce

Answer 22

• Crude divorce rate: # of divorces per 1000 ppl
• Australia: 1950 = 0.9; 1976 = 4.6; 1980 = 2.7; 1995 = 2.8; 2012 = 2.2
• Marriages that end in divorce: 8.7 yrs to separation, 12.2 yrs to divorce
• > Approx 50% involve children
• 10% of families in Aust single-parent (2011) -> 84% women
• Divorce rates higher for each subsequent marriage
• Effects of marital discord present years before divorce

Question 23

Immediate consequences of divorce

Answer 23

• Financial stress, moving house, high maternal stress/depression
• Contact with non-custodial father may decrease
• > Fathers with infrequent contact likely to be permissive indulgent
• Punishment may become harsh & inconsistent
• 20-25% of children display severe problems (vs 10% of non-divorced)
• > Mainly externalising: aggression, non-compliance, poor school performance, anti-social behaviour
• > Some internalising: depression, anxiety, social problems

Question 24

Mediating and moderating factors of divorce

Answer 24

• Children’s age: younger children more likely to blame themselves
• Older children greater cognitive understanding; behaviour problems & delinquent peers esp if high parental conflict & low supervision
• High quality parenting and strong parental relationships
• Low interparental conflict
• Father involvement if safe/adequate parenting and non-violent

Question 25

Long-term consequences of divorce

Answer 25

• Most adjust within 2 yrs
• > Slight differences in academic achievement, self-esteem, social competence, emotional/behaviour problems
• > Increased risk of early sexualised behaviour & parenthood
• Effective parenting has major positive influence on long-term adjustment
• Remaining in intact but high-conflict family is worse

Question 26

Adjusting divorce rates: role of parents

Answer 26

• Authoritative parenting style
• Protect children from conflict
• Ensure predictability, continuity & familiarity
• Promote positive & continuous r’ship with both parents
• Effective co-parenting
• Increased paternal contact associated with better outcomes if conflict can be reduced and absent serious parenting issues