Week 2: Intro to qualitative research genres and interviews

Question 1

What is the goal of qualitative research?

Answer 1

“… the development of concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in natural settings, giving due emphasis to the meanings, experiences and views of all the participants”

Question 2

What are 3 features that qualitative questions are suitable for?

Answer 2

1. Studies of settings, groups or individuals about which little is known, and for whom the possible outcomes cannot be specified or hypothesised in advance.
2. Understanding subjective experiences or meanings.
3. In-depth study of smaller sample sizes (depth vs breadth)

Question 3

What are 4 features that help clinicians to have an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and the reasons behind aspects of human behaviour (qualitation research)?

Answer 3

1. develop theory have an
2. understand why various issues & behaviours occur, & what is important to clients
3. develop interventions based on clients’ experiences, evaluate optimal outcomes & service delivery
4. enhance understanding of organisational culture and change

Question 4

What are 3 characteristics of Qualitative Research in the Health & Rehabilitation Sciences?

Answer 4

1. Encourage use and outline approaches
2. Contribution to EBP “there is nothing about the nature of
3. qualitative research that precludes it from being considered a valid form of evidence”
4. Potential of Qualitative Evidence Synthesis (metasynthesis)

Question 5

What are 3 characteristics of qualitative inquiry?

Answer 5

1. Studies, documents, analyses, and interprets how human beings construct and attach meanings to their experiences
2. Illuminates how any human phenomenon unfolds as it does and the effects on those who participate
3. Systematically gathers perspectives on what happens within systems and how what happens has implications for those involved

Question 6

What are 7 qualitative inquiry contributions?

Answer 6

1. Illustrate meaning
2. Study how things work
3. Capture stories to understand people’s perspectives and experiences
4. Elucidate how systems function and their consequences for people’s lives
5. Understand context: how and why it matters
6. Identify unanticipated consequences
7. Compare cases to discover important patterns and themes across cases

Question 7

Not everything that ____ can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts.- William Bruce Cameron (1963) Sociologist

Answer 7

counts

Question 8

What are 12 core strategies of qualitative inquiry?

Answer 8

Question 9

What are 5 characteristics of naturalistic inquiry?

Answer 9

1. Based on the notion that context is essential for understanding human behaviour.
2. Conducting research in the participant’s natural environments is essential.
3. Researchers must meet participants where they are, in the field so that data collection occurs while people are engaging in their everyday practices.
4. During this process, the researcher becomes the instrument for collecting data.
5. Research design flexibility due to open-ended nature of naturalistic inquiry and pragmatic decisions

Question 10

What are 2 characteristics of emergent design flexibility?

Answer 10

1. Research design flexibility due to open-ended nature of naturalistic inquiry and pragmatic decisions
2. There are a range of genres or approaches included under the umbrella of qualitative research, which can be applied for different research questions

Question 11

Research design flexibility due to ______(open/close)-ended nature of naturalistic inquiry and pragmatic decisions

Answer 11

open-ended

Question 12

What are 6 qualitative genres or approaches?

Answer 12

1. Phenomenology
2. Ethnography
3. Grounded theory
4. Narrative inquiry
5. Action research
6. Pragmatism & generic qualitative inquiry: qualitative description

Question 13

What are 4 characteristics of phenomenology?

Answer 13

1. Answers the question: “What is it like to have a certain experience?”
2. What is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon by this person or group or people?
3. Provides rich descriptions of experience as it is lived; deeper understandings.
4. The researcher reduces data gathered as lengthy interviews, describing the shared experiences of several informants to a central meaning or “essence” of an experience or phenomenon.

Question 14

What is a Phenomenological example?

Answer 14

• Aim: To explore the meaning and consequences of spinal cord injury (SCI) with 2 participants. Previous research had focused on outcome measures and care processes without giving voice to the perspective of the people living with spinal cord injury.
• Findings: Three related themes about re-negotiating identity after a disabling injury were: rediscovering self, redefining disability and establishing a new identity.
• Implications: Some measures of the success of the rehabilitation process may overlook these themes. Therapists need to create supportive environments for patients with SCI.

Question 15

What are 4 characteristics of Ethnography?

Answer 15

1. Aims to describe and interpret a culture or its subgroups.
2. Asks “What is happening here” and “Why is it happening?”
3. What is the culture of this group of people? How does culture explain their perspectives and behaviours?
4. The ethnographic method usually involves observation and note taking.

Question 16

What is an Ethnographical example?

Answer 16

• Dinnertime and bedtime routines and ritual in families with a young child with autism spectrum disorder.
• Aim: To describe dinnertime and bedtime rituals and routines in Australian families with a young child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
• Methods: Ethnography. 14 mothers of children with ASD between 2-5 years were interviewed. Analyst used thematic content analysis.
• Findings: Mealtimes were unstructured and chaotic routines lacking meaningful interactions. Bedtimes more structured routines with some positive meaningful interactions and rituals.
• Implications: Occupational therapists can support mothers and children with ASD by encouraging more structured and
• predictable mealtime and bedtime routines inclusive of all family
• members.

Question 17

What are 3 characteristics of Grounded Theory?

Answer 17

1. Aim: to explore social processes and to generate explanatory theories of human behaviour which are grounded in the data.
   
   • What theory, grounded in fieldwork, is produced from systematic comparative analysis to explain what has been observed?
2. Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously.
3. Analysis includes constant comparison and systematic coding
   
   • leads to identification of the core social processes and development
4. of an explanatory theory based on the data.

Question 18

What is a Grounded Theory example?

Answer 18

A qualitative study of physiotherapy education for parents of toddlers with cystic fibrosis.

• Aim: To identify factors that impair delivery and retention of physiotherapy education for parents of children with cystic fibrosis and factors that impair effective physiotherapy treatment in the home environment.
• Methods: A focus group of physiotherapists and six semi-structured interviews of parents with children with cystic fibrosis. Grounded theory was used to analyse data and develop key themes.
• Results:
  
  • Factors influencing the effectiveness of parental physiotherapy education include the large volumes of information, appropriateness of educational resources and timing of education.
  • Factors influencing home physiotherapy management for toddlers include mastering techniques, the transition from infant to toddler, and time management.
• Conclusion: Physiotherapy education and management were key causes of psychological distress for parents. Significant targeted development of educational resources is warranted, in conjunction with dedicated and ongoing formal psychosocial support for parents.

Question 19

What are 6 characteristics of Narrative inquiry/biography?

Answer 19

1. Life-story research
2. Based on tendency for people to story their experiences
3. How can this narrative (story) be interpreted to understand and illuminate the life and culture that created it? What does this narrative or story reveal about the person and world from which it came?
4. Data analysis methods focus on plot or structure of stories, the use of metaphors and linguistic devices, as well as the influence of the listener
5. Purpose – to understand meaning individuals give to experiences
6. Biography – the study of a single individual and his/her experiences as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material

Question 20

What is a Narrative inquiry/biography example?

Answer 20

1. Aim: To explore the meaning of hope in the life stories of men who had SCI as a result of a sports accident.
2. Participants: 14, white, predominantly working class English men, aged 26-51.
3. Findings: 3 powerful hope narratives types
4. Restitution – with concrete hope
5. Quest – with transcendent hope
6. Chaos – with despair, loss of hope
7. Implications: Each type impacts how young men with disability will reconstruct their identity.

Question 21

What are 2 characteristics of Action Research?

Answer 21

1. Aims to change something through systematic cycles of action & reflection (plan, act, observe, reflect)
2. Pursues action (or change) and research (or understanding) with local stakeholder involvement

Question 22

What is an Action Research example?

Answer 22

• Aim: To investigate the conversation between line manager and employee returning from sickness absence so as to develop an online education to improve effectiveness of the conversation.
• Methods: Inductive qualitative approach using principles of action research and motivational interviewing. 4 discussion groups were conducted over 8 months with 9 middle level line managers in the UK public service.
• Findings: Managers recognised that their conversations focused on instructing employees about RTW policies and procedures and so they shifted to shared decision making and guiding.

Question 23

What are 4 characteristics of of Pragmatic and generic qualitative research?

Answer 23

1. Qualitative descriptive studies stay close to the data and to the surface of the words and events
2. Qualitative description designs are typically an eclectic but reasonable combination of sampling, data collection, analysis, and representation techniques
3. Sometimes in health research, it is common to use overtones in studies when researchers are looking for straightforward descriptions of phenomena of interest – e.g., qualitative description with phenomenological undertones
4. Qualitative description is the method of choice when straight descriptions of phenomena are desired!

More descriptive and puts the data into categories

Question 24

What is a qualitative description example?

Answer 24

• Aim: Explore how dysphagia impacts on the everyday lives of people treated non-surgically for head and neck cancer
• Method: A qualitative descriptive study
• Findings: Four themes were identified: (1) physical changes to swallowing; (2) emotions evoked by living with dysphagia; (3) altered perceptions and changes in appreciation of food; (4) personal and lifestyle impacts.
• Implications: Need for holistic assessment and management for people with primary head and neck cancer who have dysphagia.

Question 25

What are 2 characteristics of qualitative studies without specified genre?

Answer 25

• Some studies (e.g., Maclean et al., 2000) do not specify the genre or approach taken
• “Qualitative study” and provides qualitative research references only
  
  • What are the practical consequences and useful applications of what we can learn about this issue or problem?

Question 26

What are 2 questions that Qualitative Studies Without Specified Genre raise?

Answer 26

1. value of following a genre and its gurus
2. freedom to adhere to general principles

Question 27

What are 7 other qualitative research approaches?

Answer 27

1. Theoretical/critical (eg: feminist, Marxist, critical race theory, queer theory)
2. Qualitative Evaluation
3. Discourse Analysis
4. Delphi Technique – a consensus technique
5. Nominal Group Technique – a consensus technique
6. Case Studies
7. Post qualitative

Question 28

1. Answers the question: “What is it like to have a certain experience?”
2. Provides rich descriptions of experience as it is lived; deeper understandings.
3. Findings often uncover meanings or “essence” of an experience or phenomenon.

What genre is described here?

Answer 28

Phenomenology

Question 29

• Life-story research
• Based on tendency for people to story their experiences
• Data analysis methods focus on plot or structure of stories, the use of metaphors and linguistic devices, as well as the influence of the listener
• Purpose – to understand meaning individuals give to experiences

Which genre is described here?

Answer 29

Narrative Inquiry

Question 30

• Aims to change something through systematic cycles of action & reflection (plan, act, observe, reflect)
• Pursues action (or change) and research (or understanding) with local stakeholder involvement

Which genre is described here?

Answer 30

Action research

Question 31

• Aims to describe and interpret a culture or its subgroups.
• Asks “What is happening here” and “Why is it happening?”
• Interpretive - a search for meaning within social norms, culturally patterned behaviour.
• This method involves observation and note taking.

Which genre is described here?

Answer 31

Ethnography

Question 32

• Primary purpose is to explore social processes and to generate explanatory theories of human behaviour which are grounded in the data.
• Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. Analysis includes constant comparison and systematic coding. Theoretical sampling guides further data collection to explore the emerging theory.
• Analysis leads to identification of thecore social processes and development of an explanatory theory based on the data

Which genre is described here?

Answer 32

Grounded Theory

Question 33

What are the 5 question method for framing a qualitative research design?

Answer 33

Question 34

What are 4 characteristics of purposeful sampling?

Answer 34

1. Recruitment by non-probability sampling
   
   • (e.g., theoretical or convenience)
2. Most commonly - purposeful sampling
   
   • Intentionally selecting data sources that can inform the phenomenon being investigated
   • Concept of data saturation
3. There are no rules for sample size in qualitative research
   
   1. Sample size depends on what you want to know, the purpose of inquiry, what will have credibility, and what can be done with time and resources
   2. Saturated data (enough for richness of data –> able to generalise)
4. Supervisor, poster at UQ, emails, media release, support groups
   
   • For your research project, you will use purposeful convenience sampling

Question 35

______ research approaches can uncover experiences, motivations, attitudes and values which impact on clinical services

Answer 35

Qualitative

Question 36

Through undertaking rigorous _____ research, allied health professionals can contribute to evidence based practices.

Answer 36

qualitative

Question 37

What are 3 data collection methods?

Answer 37

1. Interviews - audiotaped
   
   • Means: Face-to-face, telephone, Skype
   • Style: Semi-structured, unstructured, structured
   • Number interviewed: Individual, focus group
2. Naturalistic Observation
   
   • Participant or non-participant
3. Physical and Virtual Documentary Sources
   
   • Books, on-line websites, policy documents, graphics, artefacts

Question 38

What are 3 characteristics of interviews-audiotaped as a data collection method?

Answer 38

1. Means: Face-to-face, telephone, Skype
2. Style: Semi-structured, unstructured, structured
3. Number interviewed: Individual, focus group

Question 39

What is a characteristic of naturalistic observation as a data collection method?

Answer 39

Participant or non-participant

Question 40

What are 5 types of physical and virtual documentary sources as a data collection method?

Answer 40

1. Books
2. on-line websites
3. policy documents
4. graphics
5. artefacts

Question 41

What are 3 advantages of face to face interviews as a data collection method?

Answer 41

1. developing rapport is easier
2. can readily collect supporting data such as facial expression and body language
3. can also note the participants’ context

Question 42

What are 4 disadvantages of face to face interviews as a data collection method?

Answer 42

1. not always easy to find a quiet
2. accessible space as many public spaces are noisy
3. some may require booking and a fee
4. extra resources required for travelling to participants’ preferred location

convenience

Question 43

What are 4 advantages of telephone interviews (when face to face is not permitted) as a data collection method?

Answer 43

1. convenience
2. flexibility
3. increases numbers of participants
4. geographical range of recruitment (e.g., rural and remote, interstate and overseas)

Question 44

What are 5 disadvantages of telephone interviews (when face to face is not permitted) as a data collection method?

Answer 44

1. restrain development of rapport
2. miss the faceto- face cues and responses, recording can be problematic and unethical
3. interstate and overseas connections vary in quality
4. calls can be costly for interviews 30-60 minutes

Question 45

What are 3 advantages of skype interviews (when sure a connection is sound and you want some face-to-face interaction) as a data collection method?

Answer 45

1. free
2. reduced time and cost of travel
3. participantcan relax in own space

Question 46

What are 2 disadvantages of skype interviews (when sure a connection is sound and you want some face-to-face interaction) as a data collection method?

Answer 46

1. connections quality vary (e.g., may not seeface clearly);
2. interruption can occur.

Question 47

What are 3 types of interviews?

Answer 47

1. Unstructured
2. Semi-structured
3. Structured

Question 48

What are 4 characteristics of unstructured interview types?

Answer 48

1. Aim to ensure participants discuss issues of importance to them
2. Useful when little is known, want to avoid leading questions or impose your prior views & miss those of participants
3. Usually only one or a few open-ended questions, gives rich data
4. The researcher goes with the flow of the conversation and creates impromptu questions, but must be able to direct the conversation to focus on the desired topic

Ask open ended question (broad) –> prompt them to keep talking

Question 49

What are 2 characteristics of semi-structured interview types?

Answer 49

1. Open-ended questions with prompts for the interviewer
2. Allows both structure and flexibility in exploring complex questions

• Most common
• Adds to richness and depth
• Set questions to ask interviewee (do not need to ask the same way to each interviewee) –> probe depending on different people

Question 50

What are 2 characteristics of structured interview types?

Answer 50

1. Each participant is asked the same set of predetermined questions in the same way
2. • Useful for comparing answers from different participants

• Rarely used
• Ask same questions
• Does not add richness and depth

Question 51

What are 7 characteristics of semi-structured in depth interviews to aim to maximise in-depth talk by the participant?

Answer 51

1. Most widely used in qualitative research
2. Participant-centred rather than researcher-centred
3. The interviewer is Researcher-as-Instrument
4. Structured overall topic and focus –> interview guide
5. Open-ended questions
6. The interviewer has substantial freedom, being able to pose questions in whatever order makes greatest sense, and paraphrasing questions
7. Interviewer spends a lot of energy trying to probe for additional details (e.g., ‘Can you tell me more about that?’ ‘You mentioned …. Can you help me understand a bit more about that?’)

Question 52

What are 6 characteristics of focus group interviews?

Answer 52

1. 6-8 participants (but 4-10 OK)
2. Researcher acts as moderator allowing natural discussion to take place
3. Researcher elicits group rules – confidentiality, respect, and one taking at a time
4. Expect some sharing of ideas, some debates, and even disagreement
5. Ensure all get an opportunity to input
6. Can observe especially if working in pairs (i.e., observer field note taker and moderator)

Question 53

What are 2 characteristics of goin into the field?

Answer 53

1. Traditionally, social scientists have been warned to stay distant from those they study in order to remain “objective”, but this kind of detachment in qualitative research can limit your openness and understanding of the very nature of what you are studying.
2. Going into the field means having direct personal contact and engagement with the people under study in their own environments.

Question 54

What are 3 characteristics of personal experience and engagement?

Answer 54

1. Considered important in qualitative data collection
2. Training required
3. Level of personal experience matters to the research findings

Question 55

What are 3 characteristics of empathetic neutrality?

Answer 55

1. Empathetic neutrality is:
   
   • understanding a person’s situation and perspective without judging the person (still being empathetic)
   • communicating that understanding to build connection and trust.
2. Cultivate a middle ground between:
   
   • becoming too involved, which can cloud judgement, and
   • remaining too distant, which can reduce understanding.
3. Mindfulness:
   
   • focused on the moment
   • attentive to what is going on

When interviewing, this means that you must be highly focused on the interaction with the interviewee/s.

Question 56

What are 2 characteristics of dynamic systems perspective?

Answer 56

1. Can shift and change methods as needed (with limits)
2. Change language, prompts, pace etc in response to the ‘system’ you are in (ie the relationship with your participant, the surroundings etc)

Question 57

What are 3 features when interviewing people with an illness or diability?

Answer 57

1. Gain ongoing consent (particularly if people have memory loss)
2. Ask if participant would like a break (especially if topic is emotional, or they fatigue quickly, or are in pain)
3. Ask if participant would like a family member present (e.g., for support or as a prompt)

Question 58

What are 3 common elements of interview methods?

Answer 58

1. Take 45 minutes to 1 hour for individual interviews or 1-2 hours for focus group interviews
2. Are audiotaped and transcribed
3. Qualitative research generates large amounts of data (e.g., 10-20 pages for 1 hour interview, 1 hour interview takes ~6 hours to transcribe)

Question 59

What are 4 features in trustworthiness of qualitative data?

Answer 59

1. Credibility
   
   • Do the study’s conclusions “ring true” for the people studied … qualitative researchers hope that participants will react like this to the study’s findings “Yeah, that’s right, but I hadn’t thought about it in that way.”
2. Dependability
   
   • Are the observations dependable? External checks must make the researcher’s process trackable – i.e., an outsider must be able to see how a researcher went from point A to point B to point C in the interpretive process.
3. Confirmability
   
   • Are the conclusions the result of the phenomenon under study rather than the biases of the researcher … data must be traceable to their sources.
4. Transferability
   
   • Qualitative researchers aim to provide a detailed description of the setting or group under study – if the researcher has successfully provided a rich description, readers can judge for themselves whether and how the researcher’s analysis is relevant to them.

Question 60

What are 2 characteristics of planning for rigor?

Answer 60

• Apply a thorough and appropriate approach
• Prepare from the beginning to write up a rigorous study
  
  • Not internal validity of quantitative research methods•

Question 61

What are 4 examples of enhancing rigor?

Answer 61

1. Reflexivity - being aware of impact of researchers’ attitudes, their power and influence; accounting for mistakes and insights
2. Member checking or respondent validation
3. Peer review of data analysis / consensus coding
4. Triangulation (e.g., data sources, sites, types of data, data analysts)

Question 62

What are 2 ways to keep researcher’s log/diary?

Answer 62

1. Field notes: record observations and describe aspects of the field impacting data collection (e.g., interruptions, dominant informants in a focus group)
2. Memos: make notes to aid data analysis by recording your thoughts and ideas (e.g., comparisons, depth of feeling in response to a topic, novel ideas prompted by reflection of one or more transcripts, ways of representing your findings).

Question 63

What are 7 characteristics when reflecting in the role of a research?

Answer 63

1. Qualitative researchers acknowledge and embrace “personal bias” in their study designs.
2. Unlike quantitative researchers who aim to eliminate bias, qualitative researchers believe that bias is always present.
3. A researcher brings a particular worldview to the research questions asked, as well as the design of the project, as does a community or industry partner, as does a participant who engages in the project.
4. Attempting to eliminate bias is artificial, as the nature of reality and the
5. social construction of knowledge means that biases shape every stage of research.
6. For a qualitative project to be trustworthy, it must ensure that the participants’ views are the ones that drive findings.
7. Researchers need to name and understand how their beliefs may affect the study design and results.
8. In qualitative researcher, this is known as “researcher reflexivity”

Question 64

What is reflexivity?

Answer 64

“Learning to reflect on your behaviour and thoughts, as well as on the phenomenon under study, creates a means for continuously becoming a better researcher. Becoming a better researcher captures the dynamic nature of the process. Conducting research, like teaching and other complex acts, can be improved; it cannot be mastered.”

Question 65

Reflection in qualitative research typically takes the form of a “_____ ” (can be part of your field notes), where the author provides an inside view of the project, making connections between their beliefs and ideas and their research practice – and also the topic they are researching.

Answer 65

reflective journal