week 2: endocrine system Flashcards
1
Q
what does ADH stimulate the kidneys to do?
A
reabsorb water from urine back into blood
2
Q
what does adrenaline & noradrenaline do to the blood vessels supplying the skin, digestive organs & kidneys?
A
constricts them
3
Q
what does GnRH stimulate?
A
secretion of FSH & LH from the anterior pituitary
4
Q
what does BMR stand for?
A
basal metabolic rate
5
Q
what is the 3rd most common endocrine disorder?
A
hyperparathyroidism
6
Q
what is PTH secreted by?
A
parathyroid glands
7
Q
what are the 3 types of stimuli that trigger endocrine glands to secrete their hormone(s)?
A
hormonal
humoral
neural
8
Q
what are 5 effects a hormone may have?
A
activating or deactivating enzymes
changing the permeability of the PM by opening or closing ion channels
stimulating protein synthesis
inducing cell secretory activity
stimulating sell division
9
Q
what does the HPT axis stand for?
A
hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis
10
Q
how do cells use the glucose, amino acids & fatty acids stimulated by cortisol?
A
produce ATP required to resist many forms of stress
e.g., physical/emotional traumas - fright, excitement, surgery, exercise, bleeding, starvation
11
Q
what 3 things can hypocalcaemia affect?
A
blood clotting
neural communication
muscle contraction (skeletal, cardiac & smooth)
12
Q
what are the 3 interactions needed to secrete TH?
A
- -> hypothalamus secretes TRH
- -> TRH stimulates secretion of TSH from anterior pituitary
- -> TSH stimulates secretion of TH from thyroid gland
13
Q
why does testosterone target the testes?
A
to stimulate sperm production (spermatogenesis)
14
Q
what can diabetes insipidus be caused by?
A
a blow to the head –> damages the hypothalamus or posterior pituitary
15
Q
what 4 things may occur with the hypersecretion of aldosterone?
A
high BP
oedema
hypernatremia
hypokalaemia
16
Q
what is another name for GHIH?
A
somatostatin
17
Q
what does TSH stand for?
A
thyroid-stimulating hormone
18
Q
what 6 things does TH do?
A
increases BMR increases body heat production increases HR increases force of contraction promotes growth of muscles & bones promotes NS development
19
Q
what 2 things stimulate aldosterone secretion?
A
increase in blood K+ levels
angiotensin II
20
Q
what 3 things do individuals with hyperglycaemia often suffer from?
A
polyuria (large urine output)
polydipsia (excessive thirst)
polyphagia (excessive hunger)
21
Q
what is a hormonal stimulus?
A
one hormone stimulates the secretion of another
22
Q
apart from restoring Na+ levels what are 2 other functions of ADH?
A
increase BV
increase BP
23
Q
what are 4 hypothalamic releasing hormones?
A
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
24
Q
label part of the endocrine system
A
25
what 2 hormones does the posterior pituitary secrete?
ADH & oxytocin
26
what do parathyroid glands produce & secrete?
PTH
27
what is a synthetic form of cortisol?
corticosteroids
28
in the testes what does FSH regulate?
sperm production
29
who are corticosteroids prescribed to?
organ transplant recipients
30
in the testes what does LH stimulate?
production & secretion of testosterone
31
what does cortisol suppress?
functions of the immune system
32
what does hypersecretion of PTH in hyperparathyroidism lead to?
- -> excessive resorption of bone matrix (via osteoclasts)
- -> release of stored calcium into blood
- -> loss of calcium from bone matrix
33
in type 1 DM why is there inadequate insulin production?
destruction of pancreatic beta cells by body's own immune system (autoimmune disease)
34
what is calcitonin secreted by?
parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland
35
label part of the endocrine system
36
what is T4?
thyroxine
37
what is hypocalcaemia?
low blood Ca2+ levels
38
what can hypokalaemia affect?
normal functioning of the nervous & musculoskeletal systems
39
what is the secretion of adrenaline & noradrenaline controlled by?
sympathetic NS
40
what may be prescribed to patients with chronic inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis?
corticosteroids
41
together with oestrogen what does progesterone regulate?
menstrual cycle
42
how does high BP, oedema & hypernatremia occur with the hypersecretion of aldosterone?
due to Na+ & fluid retention
43
what does TRH stand for?
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
44
how due releasing or inhibiting hormones reach the anterior pituitary?
hypophyseal portal system
45
what type hormone is cortisol?
metabolic
46
what does ACTH target & stimulate?
adrenal cortex
| secretion of cortisol (from adrenal cortex)
47
what is a humoral stimulus?
| what are 4 examples?
changes in ion or nutrient blood levels
glucose, Ca2+, Na+, K+
48
what do LH & FSH target?
male & female gonads
49
is the posterior pituitary a down growth of the hypothalamus?
yes
50
if a patient is unconscious following a head injury what should you monitor carefully?
urine output
51
in adults what leads to acromegaly?
hypersecretion of GH
52
can amino acid-based hormones be single amino acids, peptides or proteins?
yes
53
when is EPO secreted?
blood oxygen level drops below normal range
54
when is PTH secreted?
blood Ca2+ levels decrease below normal range
55
the secretion of TH involves the interaction of how many endocrine glands?
3
56
what does cortisol help with?
resisting stressors
57
what is the series of interactions between 3 endocrine glands to secrete TH known as?
HPT axis
58
what does GH stimulate
secretion of IGFs
59
what 2 things can diabetes insipidus lead to?
dehydration & extreme thirst (polydipsia)
60
what is ADH also commonly known as?
vasopressin
61
what is the thyroid gland composed of?
thyroid follicles & parafollicular cells
62
what does CRH stimulate?
secretion of ACTH from anterior pituitary
63
what is primary target of ADH?
kidneys
64
list 4 things that hormones target cell activity to do
control the rate of chemical (metabolic) reactions
facilitate the transportation of substances into & out of cells
regulate fluid & electrolyte balance, BP, reproductive functions, development & growth
maintain homeostasis
65
what are hormones produced and secreted by?
various endocrine glands throughout the body
endocrine cells in:
kidneys
stomach
heart
66
what does PTH stand for?
parathyroid hormone
67
what are IGFs?
insulin-like growth factors
68
how can hypoparathyroidism occur?
parathyroid gland trauma
| parathyroid gland removal during thyroid surgery
69
how does TH increase HR & force of contraction
increases number of beta-adrenergic receptors on cardiac muscle cells
70
what does the adrenal medulla produce & secrete?
adrenaline
| noradrenaline
71
what do the beta cells of the islets of the pancreas produce & secrete?
insulin
72
what are steroid hormones made from?
cholesterol
73
besides promoting the growth & maturation of male reproductive organs what does testosterone promote?
development of male secondary sex characteristics
74
how does cortisol increase fatty acids?
targets adipose tissue & stimulates the breakdown of stored fat (triglycerides) into fatty acids
75
what does calcitonin target?
bone
76
what doe IGFs stimulate?
actions required for growth i.e., cell division & protein synthesis
77
what do axons of neurons within the hypothalamus form?
the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract
78
are corticosteroids prescribed to patients with autoimmune disorders?
yes
79
what hormone-producing cells do the islets of the pancreas contain?
beta cells
| alpha cells
80
what are the 2 endocrine glands of the adrenal gland?
```
adrenal cortex (outer)
adrenal medulla (inner)
```
81
what does TH stand for?
thyroid hormones
82
what do parafollicular cells produce & secrete?
hormone calcitonin
83
what does PIH stand for?
prolactin-inhibiting hormone
84
where are parathyroid glands located?
posterior surface of thyroid gland
85
what are parathyroid glands?
tiny masses of glandular tissue
86
low BMR, HR, BP, cold intolerance, muscle weakness & weight gain all result from what?
hyposecretion of TH during adult years
87
what does GHRH stimulate?
secretion of GH
88
EPO is produced & secreted by cells in what location?
kidneys
89
adrenaline & noradrenaline increases digestive & urinary functions (true/false)
false - decrease
90
what 5 things may result from the hypersecretion of TH?
```
increased BMR
increase body temperature (heat intolerance)
rapid HR
high BP
weight loss
```
91
what is hypoxemia?
blood oxygen level drops below normal range
92
in the ovaries what 2 things does FSH stimulate?
development of oocyte (egg) containing follicles
| production & secretion of oestrogen
93
how does adrenaline & noradrenaline increase respiratory airflow?
dilate bronchioles
94
how does cortisol increase blood glucose?
stimulates the liver to produce glucose from amino acids & glycerol (gluconeogenesis)
95
what are 2 hypothalamic inhibiting hormones?
growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
| prolactin-inhibiting hormone
96
what does the adrenal cortex produce & secrete?
glucocorticoids (primarily cortisol)
| mineralocorticoids (primarily aldosterone)
97
what is the main action of adrenaline & noradrenaline?
enhance & prolong the fight-or-flight response
98
what does GHIH stand for?
growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
99
what does EPO stand for?
erythropoietin
100
label the pancreas
101
how does aldosterone maintain blood K+ & Na+ levels?
stimulating the kidneys to:
remove more K+ from the blood
return more Na+ back into the blood
102
when is insulin secreted?
blood glucose levels increase above normal range
103
what does TRH stimulate the secretion of?
TSH from the anterior pituitary
104
what is T3?
triiodothyronine
105
what does the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract do?
transport ADH & oxytocin through the infundibulum to the posterior pituitary
106
what does aldosterone primarily do?
maintain blood K+ & Na+ levels
107
what 3 things does oestrogen promote?
female reproductive organ growth & maturation
uterus regulation of menstrual cycle
development of female secondary sex characteristics
108
what are the 2 basic types of hormones according to their chemical structure?
steroid
| amino acid-based
109
where do amino acid-based hormones bind?
to receptors embedded in the PM - PM receptors
110
how does aldosterone remove more K+ from the blood?
increases the secretion of K+ from blood into the urine being formed
111
what does GnRH stand for?
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
112
where is ADH & oxytocin produced?
the cell bodies of neurons within the hypothalamus
113
when is ADH secreted?
blood Na+ levels increase above the normal range
&/or
BV & BP decrease below normal range
114
what 3 things can hypokalaemia result in?
muscle weakness
muscle paralysis
abnormal heart rhythms
115
what does placing the infant at the mother's breast after childbirth help do?
expel the placenta
| return uterus back to its smaller size
116
in the ovaries what 2 things does LH stimulate?
ovulation
| production & secretion of progesterone (mainly) & oestrogen
117
what does PRL stand for?
prolactin
118
by promoting the development of female secondary sex characteristics what 3 things does oestrogen target?
the breasts to promote growth/enlargement
bone to promote growth & feminisation of skeleton (hip widening)
adipose tissue to increase fat storage
119
what is a neural stimulus?
signals from the nervous system
120
what is hyperparathyroidism often caused by?
parathyroid gland tumour
121
what 3 things does PTH stimulate to increase blood Ca2+?
osteoclasts
kidneys to return more Ca2+ to the blood
kidneys to secrete calcitriol
122
how does cortisol increase amino acids?
targets skeletal muscle & stimulates the breakdown of muscle proteins into amino acids
123
how does TH increase body heat production
increases metabolism
124
how does adrenaline & noradrenaline enhance & prolong the fight-or-flight response?
binding to alpha or beta adrenergic receptors on target cells
125
what type of disorder is diabetes insipidus?
endocrine
126
what 2 things is the secretion of oxytocin stimulated by?
stretching of the uterus during labour
| sucking action of the infant during breastfeeding
127
adrenaline and noradrenaline dilates pupils (true/false)
true
128
label part of the endocrine system
129
what does GH stand for?
growth hormone
130
what do the alpha cells of the islets of the pancreas produce & secrete?
glucagon
131
label part of the endocrine system
132
what does oestrogen target?
female reproductive organs
| vagina, uterus & uterine tubes
133
what does GH promote?
growth of body tissues, especially skeletal muscle & bone
134
apart from stimulating the kidneys to return more water back into the blood how else does vasopressin help increase BP?
vasoconstriction of arterioles
135
what produces T3 & T4?
thyroid follicles
136
what do releasing & inhibiting hormones regulate?
secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
137
what does FSH stand for?
follicle-stimulating hormone
138
what is the posterior pituitary composed of?
neural tissue
139
how does cortisol suppress the functions of the immune system?
inhibits activities of WBCs
(inc. release of inflammatory chemicals)
depresses inflammatory & immune response
140
what does deficiencies in TH during foetal development, infancy or childhood lead to?
mental retardation & stunted bone growth?
141
what is the hypophyseal portal system?
network of blood vessels that connect the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary through the infundibulum
142
what does ACTH stand for?
adrenocorticotropic hormone
143
what secretes oxytocin?
posterior pituitary
144
are kidneys classified as an endocrine gland?
no
145
when is calcitonin secreted?
blood Ca2+ levels increase above the normal range
146
in children what leads to gigantism?
hypersecretion of GH
147
what does TSH stimulate?
secretion of TH from thyroid gland
148
when is glucagon secreted?
blood glucose levels decrease below the normal range
149
what stimulates cortisol secretion?
ACTH
150
how is excess glucose removed from the blood in DM?
at the kidneys - excreted in the urine
151
what receptors do steroid hormone bind to?
intracellular receptors
152
what can hypoparathyroidism result in?
hypocalcaemia
153
how is type 1 DM characterised?
inadequate insulin production
154
can DM result from both hyposecretion & hypoactivity of insulin?
yes
155
what is the hypothalamus connected to the pituitary gland via?
a stalk called the infundibulum
156
in what locations does GH stimulate cells?
liver
skeletal muscles
bones
157
how many endocrine glands make up the adrenal gland?
2
158
what is calcitriol?
active form of vit. D
159
what does PRL target & stimulate?
mammary glands
| milk production
160
what is BMR?
amount of ATP required by body cells to carry out all metabolic reactions at rest
161
what 2 things does oxytocin stimulate?
contraction of uterine smooth muscle cells during labour
| ejection of milk from mammary glands during breastfeeding
162
what does progesterone prepare the uterus for & help maintain?
pregnancy
163
what does GHIH/somatostatin inhibit?
secretion of GH
164
what does the hyposecretion of ADH result in?
diabetes insipidus
165
how does ADH restore normal Na+ levels?
diluting the blood plasma
166
what 3 things does cortisol do to help the body resist stressors?
increasing blood glucose, fatty acid & amino acid levels
167
TH affects virtually every cell in the body (true/false)
true
168
how does aldosterone return more Na+ back into the blood?
increases the reabsorption of Na+ from the urine being formed into blood
169
in conjunction with what hormone does TH promote growth of muscles & bones?
GH
170
what does CRH stand for?
corticotropin-releasing hormone
171
what 6 ways does insulin decrease blood glucose?
stimulates body cells to uptake glucose from the blood
stimulates body cells to utilise glucose for ATP production (glycolysis)
body cells uptake amino acids for protein synthesis
targets liver to inhibit production of glucose from amino acids & glycerol (gluconeogenesis)
liver & skeletal muscles convert glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis)
targets liver & seletal muscle to inhibit the breakdown of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis)
172
where is the pancreas located?
abdominal cavity
173
what does TSH target & stimulate?
thyroid gland
| thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones T3 & T4
174
what does GHRH stand for?
growth hormone-releasing hormone
175
what does the secretion of cortisol involve?
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis)
176
label the diagram
177
what does PIH primarily control the secretion of?
PRL from the anterior pituitary
178
what does calcitriol do?
increases absorption of Ca2+ from digested foods in the small intestine
179
how many different hormones does the anterior pituitary secrete?
6
180
does ADH increase or decrease urine output?
decrease
181
what does testosterone promote in male reproductive organs?
growth & maturation
182
what is the hypothalamus classified as?
neuroendocrine organ
183
what does DM stand for?
diabetes mellitus
184
what is the effect of hyperparathyroidism on bones?
| what happens if left untreated?
become soft
if left untreated:
- -> loss of bone mass (thin bones)
- -> osteoporosis
185
what does EPO target?
bone marrow
186
why are corticosteroids prescribed to organ transplant recipients?
to slow/prevent tissue rejection
187
what secretes ADH?
posterior pituitary
188
what does decreased PIH secretion lead to?
increased PRL secretion
189
what does testosterone target?
male reproductive organs
| ducts, glands, penis, scrotum, testes
190
what 2 ways does calcitonin decrease blood Ca2+ levels?
inhibits the activity of osteoclasts
| stimulates calcium uptake from blood into bone
191
what produces releasing & inhibiting hormones?
hypothalamic neurons
192
what does EPO stimulate?
production of RBCs
193
does the posterior pituitary produce its own hormones?
no
194
by promoting the development of male secondary sex characteristics what 3 things does testosterone target?
muscles to increase muscle mass & strength
bone to stimulate growth
hair follicles to stimulate growth of body hair (e.g., facial & pubic)
195
when does type 2 DM occur?
when body cells become non-responsive to the insulin being reduced "insulin resistant"
196
what does the hyposecretion of GH lead to?
dwarfism
197
what is a symptom of diabetes insipidus?
excessive urination (polyuria)
198
what does LH stand for?
luteinising hormone
199
in DM when is blood glucose levels particularly high? and why?
after a meal
| glucose is unable to enter body cells
200
what does the pancreas contain?
small islands of endocrine cells (pancreatic islet/islet of langerhans)
201
what 4 ways does glucagon increase blood glucose?
stimulates the liver to:
breakdown stored glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis)
produce glucose from amino acids & glycerol (gluconeogenesis)
release glucose into the bloodstream
target adipose tissue to stimulate the breakdown of fats to fatty acid & glycerol - & their release into bloodstream
202
does adrenaline & noradrenaline increase sweat gland activity?
yes
203
what does adrenaline & noradrenaline do to the blood vessels that supply skeletal muscles & the heart?
dilate them
204
what does PTH target?
bone
kidneys
small intestine
205
adrenaline & noradrenaline decreases HR & force of contraction? (true/false)
false - increase
