Week 12: Male and Female Reproductive Disorders Flashcards
1
Q
What is a hydrocele?
A
A condition characterized by the accumulation of excess fluid in the sac surrounding the testes, causing swelling in the scrotum.
2
Q
What are the etiologies of hydrocele?
A
Congenital: Often caused by failure of the processus vaginalis to close during fetal development.
Acquired: May be caused by trauma, infection (such as epididymitis), or a tumor that obstructs normal drainage of the scrotal sac.
3
Q
What are the predisposing factors for hydrocele?
A
Premature birth or low birth weight in infants.
Infection or trauma in adults.
Presence of a tumor or malignancy in the scrotum.
4
Q
What is the pathophysiology of hydrocele?
A
Excessive fluid accumulates within the tunica vaginalis due to increased fluid production or failure of absorption, leading to swelling.
Fluid may also accumulate due to disruption in lymphatic drainage or venous obstruction.
5
Q
What are the clinical manifestations of hydrocele?
A
Painless swelling in the scrotum, often on one side. Heaviness or discomfort in adults due to the enlarged scrotum.
.
6
Q
In congenital cases of hydrocele, the condition usually resolves spontaneously by the age of _____/
A
One years old
7
Q
What is a varicocele?
A
The enlargement of veins within the scrotum, particularly in the spermatic cord.
8
Q
What causes a varicocele?
A
Caused by dilated veins in the spermatic cord, often due to incompetent venous valves that allow blood to pool in the veins, leading to their enlargement.
9
Q
Why is left-sided varicocele more common?
A
The left testicular vein drains into the left renal vein at a perpendicular angle, which is more prone to reflux.
10
Q
When does varicocele often occur?
A
Often occurs during puberty when the scrotum grows rapidly.
11
Q
What is the pathophysiology of varicocele?
A
The dilated veins lead to increased venous pressure, causing stasis of blood in the testicle, hypoxia, and reduced blood flow, potentially impacting spermatogenesis.
12
Q
What are the clinical manifestations of varicocele?
A
Often presents as a bag of worms felt in the scrotum, especially when standing, along with a dull ache or heaviness in the scrotum.
13
Q
How can varicocele affect fertility?
A
May cause infertility due to compromised sperm production.
14
Q
What can occur over time due to chronic ischemia from varicocele?
A
Testicular atrophy may occur over time.
15
Q
What is Balanitis?
A
Inflammation of the glans penis, often due to infection.
16
Q
What are the common causes of Balanitis?
A
Usually caused by Candida albicans (fungal infection) or bacterial infections, including those related to poor hygiene or sexually transmitted diseases (e.g., gonorrhea or chlamydia).
17
Q
How does diabetes mellitus affect Balanitis?
A
Poorly controlled diabetes can increase the risk of candidal infections.
18
Q
What are the predisposing factors for Balanitis?
A
Poor genital hygiene, unprotected sexual activity, multiple sexual partners, poorly controlled diabetes, and use of antibiotics.
19
Q
What is the pathophysiology of Balanitis?
A
Infections or poor hygiene can lead to inflammation of the glans penis, leading to the formation of vesicles and patches due to the body’s immune response.
20
Q
What are the clinical manifestations of Balanitis?
A
Pain, itching, and burning around the glans penis; redness and swelling of the glans penis, often with vesicles or ulcers; a white, thick discharge may be seen, especially if the infection is fungal (e.g., Candida).
21
Q
What is prostatitis?
A
Inflammation or infection of the prostate gland, which can be acute or chronic.
22
Q
What causes acute bacterial prostatitis?
A
Caused by E. coli or other bacterial pathogens like Pseudomonas or Enterococcus faecalis.
23
Q
What is chronic bacterial prostatitis often due to?
A
Often due to recurrent E. coli infections.
24
Q
What is nonbacterial prostatitis?
A
Exact cause is unknown, though it may involve autoimmune or inflammatory processes.
25
What is asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis?
No known symptoms but may show inflammatory changes in prostate tissue.
26
What are some predisposing factors for prostatitis?
Urinary tract infections (UTIs), chronic urinary retention or obstruction, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and use of urinary catheters.
27
What is the pathophysiology of prostatitis?
Infection causes inflammation in the prostate, leading to swelling and impaired function. In bacterial cases, bacteria invade prostate tissue, leading to pus formation.
28
What are the clinical manifestations of prostatitis?
Dysuria, urinary frequency, urgency, painful ejaculation, pelvic or perineal pain, and lower back pain.
29
What symptoms may occur in acute prostatitis cases?
Fever, chills, anorexia, and malaise.
30
How do symptoms differ in chronic prostatitis cases?
Symptoms may be more intermittent and less severe.
31
What is cancer of the prostate?
A malignant tumor in the prostate gland.
32
What type of cancer is most common in the prostate?
The majority of prostate cancers are adenocarcinomas arising from the epithelial cells of the prostate.
33
What genetic mutations can increase the risk of prostate cancer?
Mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 can increase the risk.
34
What are the predisposing factors for prostate cancer?
Age, family history, ethnicity, diet, and hormone levels.
35
How does age affect the risk of prostate cancer?
Prostate cancer is more common in men over 50.
36
Which ethnicity is more commonly affected by prostate cancer?
Prostate cancer is more common in African-American men.
37
How does diet influence the risk of prostate cancer?
A high-fat diet, especially from animal sources, can increase risk.
38
What hormonal factors are associated with prostate cancer risk?
High levels of androgens (testosterone) and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) can increase risk.
39
Where does prostate cancer usually begin?
Prostate cancer usually begins in the peripheral zones of the prostate.
40
How does prostate cancer spread?
It can invade surrounding tissues and metastasize via lymphatic and hematogenous routes (e.g., bone, liver, lungs).
41
What is the growth dependency of most prostate tumors?
Most tumors are androgen-dependent, meaning they grow in response to testosterone.
42
What are common clinical manifestations of prostate cancer?
Hard nodule on the prostate, hesitancy, decreased urine stream, frequent urination, recurrent UTIs, hematuria, and sexual dysfunction.
43
What symptoms may present in advanced stages of prostate cancer?
Bone pain, weight loss, and fatigue due to metastasis.
44
What is torsion of the testes?
A medical emergency where the spermatic cord twists.
45
What causes torsion of the testes?
Caused by the rotation of the testes on the spermatic cord, leading to compression of blood vessels, ischemia, and potential tissue death.
46
What are the predisposing factors for torsion of the testes?
Undescended testes (cryptorchidism), trauma to the scrotum or testicle, and excessive physical or sexual activity.
47
What is the pathophysiology of torsion of the testes?
The testis twists on its spermatic cord, leading to obstruction of venous outflow and reduced arterial supply, causing ischemia. If untreated, infarction of the testicular tissue occurs due to prolonged lack of blood flow.
48
What are the clinical manifestations of torsion of the testes?
Sudden, severe scrotal pain, swelling and redness of the affected testicle, nausea and vomiting due to pain, and absence of cremasteric reflex.
49
What happens if torsion of the testes is untreated?
The testicle may become necrotic.
50
What is cancer of the testes?
A cancer of the testicle.
51
What are the most common types of testicular tumors?
Most testicular tumors are germ cell tumors, which originate from sperm-producing cells.
52
What types of elements may be present in mixed testicular tumors?
Mixed tumors may have both seminomatous and nonseminomatous elements.
53
What markers may some testicular cancers secrete?
Some testicular cancers secrete hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) or AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) as markers.
54
What are some predisposing factors for testicular cancer?
Cryptorchidism (undescended testes), family history of testicular cancer, environmental factors such as exposure to certain chemicals or pesticides, and HIV infection may also increase risk.
55
How does testicular cancer grow and spread?
Testicular cancer begins in the germ cells and grows rapidly. It can metastasize through lymphatic channels and blood vessels to lymph nodes, lungs, liver, and brain.
56
What are the clinical manifestations of testicular cancer?
A painless, firm, unilateral mass in the scrotum, testicular enlargement or heaviness, dull ache or discomfort in the scrotum or pelvis, and hydrocele or epididymitis may be present.
57
What can occur if testicular cancer is hormone-secreting?
If hormone-secreting, gynaecomastia (enlargement of breast tissue in men) can occur.
58
What is Amenorrhea?
Amenorrhea is the absence of menstruation.
59
What is Primary Amenorrhea?
Primary Amenorrhea may be genetic, often due to congenital absence or malformation of reproductive organs, or chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., Turner syndrome, Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome).
60
What is Secondary Amenorrhea?
Secondary Amenorrhea is caused by hormonal imbalances (e.g., hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction, polycystic ovary syndrome, stress, excessive exercise, or weight loss).
61
What are the predisposing factors for Amenorrhea?
Predisposing factors include genetic disorders, significant weight loss, eating disorders, stress, and hormonal imbalances.
62
What is the pathophysiology of Amenorrhea?
The pathophysiology involves the absence of menstrual periods due to disruption in the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis or reproductive organ abnormalities.
63
What are the clinical manifestations of Amenorrhea?
Clinical manifestations include no menstruation, absence of secondary sexual characteristics in primary amenorrhea, and infertility.
64
What is dysmenorrhea?
Dysmenorrhea is painful menstruation, often related to excessive release of prostaglandins leading to uterine contractions.
65
What is primary dysmenorrhea?
Primary dysmenorrhea is often due to prostaglandin release associated with a lack of blood flow to the endometrium
66
What causes secondary dysmenorrhea?
Secondary dysmenorrhea can be caused by underlying conditions such as endometriosis, fibroids, or pelvic inflammatory disease (PID).
67
What are the predisposing factors for dysmenorrhea?
Predisposing factors include early menarche, obesity, smoking, heavy menstrual flow, and stress.
68
What is the pathophysiology of dysmenorrhea?
Excessive prostaglandin production causes increased uterine contractions leading to ischemia and pain during menstruation.
69
What are the clinical manifestations of dysmenorrhea?
Clinical manifestations include severe crampy lower abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, headaches, and back pain.
70
What is Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?
A group of symptoms that occur one to two weeks before menstruation.
71
What is the etiology of PMS?
The exact cause is unknown, but it is believed to involve hormonal fluctuations, especially the rise and fall of estrogen and progesterone.
72
What are the predisposing factors for PMS?
Hormonal imbalances, stress, lack of exercise, poor diet, family history.
73
What is the pathophysiology of PMS?
Imbalances in hormone levels (estrogen and progesterone) affect neurotransmitter activity in the brain, leading to mood changes, fluid retention, and other physical symptoms.
74
What are the clinical manifestations of PMS?
Breast tenderness, weight gain, abdominal bloating, irritability, emotional lability, fatigue, headache, sleep disturbances.
75
What is abnormal menstrual bleeding?
Irregular bleeding, often due to hormonal imbalances.
76
What is menorrhagia?
Excessive menstrual bleeding in amount and duration.
77
What is metrorrhagia?
Bleeding between cycles.
78
What is polymenorrhea?
Short menstrual cycles (less than 3 weeks).
79
What is oligomenorrhea?
Infrequent menstruation.
80
What are the common etiologies of abnormal menstrual bleeding?
Hormonal imbalances (particularly in ovulation), uterine fibroids, polyps, endometrial hyperplasia, or PCOS.
81
What are the predisposing factors for abnormal menstrual bleeding?
Stress, obesity, polycystic ovary syndrome, fibroids, medications (e.g., anticoagulants).
82
What is the pathophysiology of abnormal menstrual bleeding?
Disruption in the pituitary-ovarian axis, leading to improper shedding of the endometrium.
83
What are the clinical manifestations of abnormal menstrual bleeding?
Heavy menstrual bleeding, irregular periods, spotting between periods.
84
What is endometriosis?
Presence of endometrial tissue outside the uterus (ectopic endometrial tissue).
85
What is the etiology of endometriosis?
Exact cause is unknown; believed to involve retrograde menstruation or genetic factors.
86
What are the predisposing factors for endometriosis?
Family history, early menarche, infertility.
87
What is the pathophysiology of endometriosis?
Ectopic endometrial tissue responds to hormonal changes, bleeding and inflammation lead to pain, adhesions, and infertility.
88
What are the clinical manifestations of endometriosis?
Dysmenorrhea, chronic pelvic pain, pain during intercourse, pain with bowel movements or urination, excessive menstrual bleeding, infertility, fatigue, bloating.
89
What is Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?
Infection of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries, which can be acute or chronic.
90
What is the etiology of PID?
Usually arises from sexually transmitted infections (STIs) like chlamydia or gonorrhea, non-sterile abortions, or childbirth.
91
What are the predisposing factors for PID?
Sexually active women, multiple sexual partners, lack of contraception, history of STIs.
92
What is the pathophysiology of PID?
Infection leads to inflammation, which can cause scarring of the reproductive organs, leading to infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain.
93
What are the clinical manifestations of PID?
Pelvic pain, fever, nausea, vomiting, leukocytosis, abnormal vaginal discharge, dyspareunia (pain during intercourse).
94
What is Leiomyoma or Fibroids?
Benign smooth muscle tumors of the uterus, common during the reproductive years.
95
What is the etiology of Leiomyoma?
Likely due to disordered angiogenesis and smooth muscle cell proliferation, with a genetic predisposition.
96
What are the predisposing factors for Leiomyoma?
Obesity, early menarche, family history.
97
How do hormonal changes affect Leiomyoma?
Fibroids grow in response to hormonal changes (estrogen and progesterone), causing symptoms like abnormal bleeding or pelvic pain.
98
What are the clinical manifestations of Leiomyoma?
Heavy menstrual bleeding, pelvic pressure, pain, urinary frequency, infertility, or miscarriage.
99
What is Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)?
A condition in which the ovaries are enlarged with multiple cysts, often leading to infertility.
100
What are the likely causes of PCOD?
A combination of genetic and environmental factors.
101
What are the predisposing factors for PCOD?
Family history, obesity, insulin resistance.
102
What is the pathophysiology of PCOD?
Hormonal imbalance leads to follicular cyst formation and lack of ovulation, causing infertility, irregular periods, and androgenic symptoms (e.g., hirsutism).
103
What are the clinical manifestations of PCOD?
Irregular or absent periods, infertility, hirsutism, acne, weight gain.
104
What is carcinoma of the cervix?
Cancer of the cervix, typically caused by HPV infection.
105
What are the primary causes of carcinoma of the cervix?
Most cases are caused by HPV types 16 and 18, a sexually transmitted virus.
106
What are the predisposing factors for carcinoma of the cervix?
Early sexual activity, multiple sexual partners, smoking, history of STIs, immunosuppression.
107
What is the pathophysiology of carcinoma of the cervix?
HPV infects the cervix, leading to dysplasia (abnormal cell growth), which can progress to invasive carcinoma.
108
What are the clinical manifestations of carcinoma of the cervix?
Often asymptomatic in early stages. Later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain, and painful intercourse.
109
What is carcinoma of the uterus?
Cancer arising from the lining of the uterus, most common in postmenopausal women.
110
What are the common etiological factors for carcinoma of the uterus?
Often associated with excess estrogen without progesterone, obesity, and diabetes.
111
What are the predisposing factors for carcinoma of the uterus?
Age, obesity, diabetes, long-term estrogen therapy without progesterone.
112
What is the pathophysiology of carcinoma of the uterus?
Often arises from glandular epithelium, slow-growing but invasive.
113
What are the clinical manifestations of carcinoma of the uterus?
Painless vaginal bleeding or spotting, particularly in postmenopausal women.
114
What is ovarian cancer?
Cancer of the ovaries, often diagnosed at a late stage.
115
What are the risk factors for ovarian cancer?
Risk factors include family history, BRCA mutations, obesity, and use of fertility drugs.
116
What are the predisposing factors for ovarian cancer?
Obesity, BRCA mutations, early menarche, nulliparity.
117
What is the pathophysiology of ovarian cancer?
Ovarian tumors can metastasize early to other organs.
118
What are the clinical manifestations of ovarian cancer?
Often asymptomatic in early stages; symptoms include abdominal bloating, pelvic pain, and urinary symptoms as the tumor grows.
119
What is Fibrocystic Breast Disease?
A benign condition that involves the development of dense, lumpy breast tissue.
120
What is the etiology of Fibrocystic Breast Disease?
Hormonal fluctuations, particularly estrogen.
121
What are the predisposing factors for Fibrocystic Breast Disease?
Menstrual cycle, caffeine consumption (controversial).
122
What is the pathophysiology of Fibrocystic Breast Disease?
Cyclical changes in breast tissue lead to fibrosis and cyst formation.
123
What are the clinical manifestations of Fibrocystic Breast Disease?
Tender, lumpy breasts, especially before menstruation. Increased density can make self-examination difficult.
124
What is carcinoma of the breast?
A malignant tumor arising from the epithelial cells of the breast.
125
What are the key factors involved in the etiology of breast carcinoma?
Involves both genetic and environmental factors, with key mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2.
126
What are the predisposing factors for breast carcinoma?
Family history, early menarche, late menopause, high-fat diet, smoking.
127
What is the pathophysiology of breast carcinoma?
Tumors often arise from ductal epithelial cells and can metastasize via lymph nodes.
128
What are the clinical manifestations of breast carcinoma?
A painless lump, skin dimpling, nipple discharge, and distortion of breast tissue. Advanced stages may involve metastasis to bone, liver, and lungs.
129
What is Vaginal Candidiasis?
A yeast infection of the vagina caused by Candida albicans.
130
What causes Vaginal Candidiasis?
Overgrowth of Candida albicans, often due to changes in the vaginal environment (e.g., antibiotics, diabetes).
131
What are the predisposing factors for Vaginal Candidiasis?
Antibiotic use, pregnancy, diabetes, immunosuppression.
132
What is the pathophysiology of Vaginal Candidiasis?
Overgrowth of Candida leads to irritation, inflammation, and infection of vaginal tissues.
133
What are the clinical manifestations of Vaginal Candidiasis?
Intense itching, red swollen mucous membranes, thick, white discharge, vulvar irritation.
134
What are sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)?
STDs are infections that are passed from one person to another through sexual contact. They are caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites.
135
What causes Chlamydia?
Chlamydia is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. It may cause no symptoms but can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women and infertility in both men and women if untreated.
136
What are the symptoms of Gonorrhea?
Gonorrhea, caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, often causes painful urination and purulent discharge from the genitals.
137
What stages does Syphilis progress through?
Syphilis, caused by Treponema pallidum, progresses in stages: primary (chancres), secondary (rash, mucous patches), latent, and tertiary (neurological, cardiovascular).
138
What is Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)?
HIV is caused by the HIV virus, which attacks the immune system and can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
139
What are the types of Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)?
HSV has Type 1 (oral) and Type 2 (genital), characterized by painful sores, blisters, and latent infection.
140
What does Human Papillomavirus (HPV) cause?
HPV is caused by a group of viruses; some strains lead to genital warts, while others can cause cervical, penile, or anal cancers.
141
What are the symptoms of Trichomoniasis?
Trichomoniasis, caused by Trichomonas vaginalis, leads to vaginal discharge, itching, and discomfort.
