Week 12 Flashcards
Defining Emotions
• Affect: An umbrella term that covers all evaluative – or valenced (i.e., positive/negative) – states such as
emotion, mood, and preference.
• Emotions: Relatively intense affective responses that
usually involve a number of sub-components –
subjective feeling, physiological arousal, motor
expression, action tendency, and regulation – which are more or less synchronized. Emotions focus on specific
objects, and last from several minutes to a few hours. Ex. Stub toe
• Moods: Affective states that feature a lower felt
intensity than emotions, that do not have a clear object cause, and that are much longer lasting than emotions (i.e.,
several hours to days).
Kinematic music wants you to movie, mimic human or animal sad sounds.
Musical emotions don’t serve same purpose, functionally adaptive not sure.
Ok
We define emotions according to their?
function.
• Emotions are dispositions to action. They
represent movements toward positive, appetitivethings and movements away from negative,
unpleasant things.
• Emotions are evolutionary adaptations. They
evolved from functional behaviors that
facilitated survival.
• ***Emotions are valenced, i.e., they cannot be
neutral.
Defining Emotions: Physical Characteristics • Emotional states lead toreliable changes of a person‘s voice and facial expression. • Music and speech involve similar emotion-specifc acoustic cues. • cross-cultural research of emotion expression and perception: universal & culture- specific cues
• Emotional states often result in characteristic changes in a person’s physical appearance or in the
sound of their voice. For example, some facial expressions (grief, joy, surprise, fright, disgust, contempt
[sneer]) appear to produce reliable configurations of facial musculature. Similarly, fear, joy, aggression,
timidity, sadness and other emotions appear to produce reliable changes in the human voice.
• For social animals, like humans, deciphering the emotional states of others is important. Some emotionsare expressed through visual cues such as smiling. Emotions can also be expressed through auditory
cues such as in the “nervous voice”. Humans appear to be very sensitive to possible deception in
emotional expressions.
• Speech and music share similar emotion-specific cues, such as pitch level, tempo and intensity. For
example, happiness in music and speech is associated with a fast pace and high intensity. Some
researchers have proposed that general-purpose brain mechanisms process emotions expressed in
music and speech.
• Cross-cultural research investigating some facial expressions implies that certain expressions might be
universal. At the same time, culture-specific modifications to these “basic” expressions are evident –
what Ekman calls “display rules.”
References:
Measuring EmotionsHow do we measure Lucy’s
emotions in the laboratory?
1) Examine her facial
expression.
2) Record measures of
autonomic arousal (look
for changes in heart rate,
respiration, a startle
response, etc.).
3) Just ask her.
Measuring Emotions
• Emotion Response Triad
1) Behavior – overt acts or functional behavioral sequences, which
include facial expressions, vocalizations, and body language.
▫Emotions are not always accompanied by expressive behaviors.
2) Emotional Language – expressive communication (e.g., descriptionsof feelings, self-ratings)
▫
▫Emotions are often ineffable, or at least difficult to put into words.
Participants are not always reliable in reporting their emotional
experiences (did they feel an emotion, or did they recognize the
emotion expressed by the stimulus?).
3) Physiological Reactions – variations in somatic and autonomic
activity (respiration, startle eye-blink reflex, skin conductance, etc.)
▫Autonomic changes often occur in the absence of felt emotions.
• Componential Approach
▫an emotion episode consists of coordinated changes in several
components: motor expression, subjective feeling, and physiological
Such is the difficulty of measuring emotions that researchers often rely on converging evidence from multiple response paradigms, and the emotion response triad remains the most common measurementparadigm for providing reliable evidence of induced emotions in participants.
Prototypical Emotion-Episode Model (PEEM)
**Event Perception Arousal Increase Facial Expression Emotion Label BehaviorEvent
Perception
Arousal Increase
Facial Expression
Emotion Label
Behavior
•
Locking keys in car Seeing the keys HR and SC increase Brows furrowed Anger, Frustration Kicking tire Emotion episodes are rare (a few times a day), metabolically costly, and serve an appetitive or aversive function.
Modelling Emotions
• Dimensional approach
▫ Emotion terms are not independent, but can be
placed in a circular arrangement in a two-dimensionalbi-polar space consisting of pleasantness-
unpleasantness and activation-deactivation (Russell,
1980).
• Limitations
▫ The circumplex model solves a statistical problem.
▫ However, it asks participants to perform a mental
principal components analysis. Many scholars believe that the primitive qualia underlying emotions are
categorical.
Other approach, modern factor analysis reveals:
• Categorical vs. dimensional approach: Having approached emotion from different perspectives (e.g., evolution, facial expression, neurology), several researchers argue that there is a limited set of basic emotions. These basic emotions differ from each other in many ways (appraisal, antecedent events,behavioral response, physiology). This approach is in contrast to those who treat emotions as fundamentally the same, differing only in terms of intensity and pleasantness.
Dimensional approach
▫ Emotion terms are not independent, but can be
placed in a circular arrangement in a two-dimensionalbi-polar space consisting of pleasantness-
unpleasantness and activation-deactivation (Russell,
1980).
• Limitations
▫ The circumplex model solves a statistical problem.
▫ However, it asks participants to perform a mental
principal components analysis. Many scholars believe that the primitive qualia underlying emotions are
categorical.
The Circumplex Model of Affect (Russell, 1980) is a dimensional model of emotions, which stands in
strong contrast with theories of basic emotions. Dimensional emotion models propose that every emotionarises from common, overlapping neurophysiological systems, whereas basic emotion models claim that each emotion emerges from independent neural systems.
• As depicted in the graph (taken from Posner, Russell, & Peterson, 2005), the circumplex model of
affect proposes that each affective state arises from two fundamental neurophysiological systems, one
related to arousal (or alertness, activation) and one to valence (a pleasure-displeasure continuum). Each emotion can be understood as a linear combination of these two dimensions. The degree or extent of
activation of the neural systems determines a specific emotion (e.g., joy: strong activation of the neural
system that is related to pleasure, moderate activation of the neural system that is related to
arousal/activation). Specific emotions arise out of patterns of activation within these two
neurophysiological systems.
• Although this model has been widely used, it has been criticized. For example, Reisenzein (1994) has
stated that Russell‘s model does not explain the finer distinction between specific emotions such as
anger, envy, disappointment or love, pride and gratitude. Also, one problem with this model is that the
arousal dimension is poorly defined.
Note: In 1936, Kate Hevner asked participants to check off the adjectives that described the emotional
expression of a series of classical excerpts from a group of 19th century composers. She observed that
the adjectives could be classified into 8 different groups that could be placed in a circular orientation, withtwo dimensions explaining the circle: muscular tension and activity.
Experimental evidence for circumplex:
Bigand and his collaborators presented 27 instrumental excerpts to listeners and asked them to group them according the emotional tone they induced in the listening. The emphasis was thus on felt emotion. They treated the number of people putting two excerpts in the same group as a measure of similarity andperformed multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis on these values. The resulting space is shown
in the diagram. Listeners also made ratings of the degree of arousal and valence of the excerpts and the first two dimensions of a 3D space correlated well with these independent measures. Notice the ring form that is similar to Russell’s (1980) emotional circumplex.
Ok
Musical Emotions
Problems
• The term ‘emotion’ should be reserved for emotion
episodes, and music does not induce emotion episodes.
Musical emotions have no unambiguous
mental/physical cause (Konečni, 2008).
• The basic emotions are ill-adapted for the rich variety of emotional experiences to music (Scherer, 2004).
Solution
• Posit terms like aesthetic awe, being moved, and chills
as surrogates for emotions.
• Aesthetic emotions serve no adaptive purpose.
Both in basic emotion model. Causal.
One of the big issues in emotion research is the question of the extent to
which musical emotions are similar or different from everyday emotions. For
example, this question is relevant for the discussion of the origins of music
(Why does music exist?).
Konečni (2008) argues that the body of research supporting emotion induction during music listening is recent an unconvincing, and Scherer (2004) suggeststhat researchers abandon the dimensional and categorical models altogether
and divide emotions into utilitarian and aesthetic categories. Utilitarian
Emotions follow the PEEM model (slide 9) and serve major functions in the
adaptation of individuals; thus, they have important consequences for well-
being.
Scherer cites a few ways music can elicit emotions: via appraisal, episodic
memory (this is our song), and empathy (emotional contagion), or peripherally through proprioceptive feedback (emotion induction through the sense of body motion; i.e., you dance and it makes you feel happy).
Inducing Emotions: Emotivism vs Cognitivism• Emotivists: music elicits emotional responses at
a subcortical level, then the stimulus is
appraised emotion
thought
• Cognitivists: features of the music are
recognized and appraised, then the emotion
follows thought emotion
Example:
A: “The music arouses sadness in the listener.”
B: “The music expresses sadness and the listener recognizes it.”
emotion induction vs. emotion perception
Philosopher Peter Kivy discusses the different attitudes held by “emotivists“ and “cognitivists“.
Emotivists claim that music elicits/induces/evokes real emotions in listeners, whereas
cognitivists argue that music expresses or represents emotions. Kivy did not say that listeners do not experience emotions in music. He is in favour of cognitivism and says that listeners are moved emotionally by the music.
• This differentiation is also reflected in the distinction between emotion induction and emotion
perception:
Emotion induction: Refers to all cases where music evokes an emotion in a listener - regardless of the nature of the process that evoked the emotion.
Emotion perception: Refers to all instances where a listener perceives or recognizes
expressed emotions in music, without necessarily feeling an emotion.
• Both emotion perception and induction depend on an interplay between musical, personal and situational factors. Much research has been devoted to how music expresses emotion. It is
more difficult to measure induced emotions than perceived ones. The emotions expressed by the music may be different from the ones induced in the listener. The distinction between induced and expressed emotions is relevant for the methodology used in experiments.
Psychological mechanism – any information processing that leads to the induction of emotions through listening to music.
1) brain stem reflexes – Urgent or Important Events
2) evaluative conditioning – A Clockwork Orange
3) visual imagery – Conjuring up visual images
4) emotional contagion – Mimicing the Expression
5) episodic memory – ‘Darling, they’re playing our
song. ’
6) musical expectancy – Expectancy violations
The take-home message is that “there is no single mechanism that can account for all instances of musically-induced emotion.”
Inducing emotion
Lundqvist et al. (2009) provided evidence of emotion induction during music listening (i.e., evidence for
the emotivist position). They measured self-reported felt emotions, facial muscle activity, and autonomic
activity in 32 participants that listened to experimenter-created popular music (with lyrics)with either a happy or sad emotional expression.
Results
•
Happy music induced higher happiness ratings, more zygomatic activity, higher SCL, and lower
Finger temperature. The authors found no effects of HR or Corrugator activity.
Lundqvist et al. suggested that emotional contagion was the mechanism responsible for the reportedfindings, in which listeners mimic the emotion expressed by the music.
What is music performance
Composer Work Score Performer Audience Concert, Recording (Radio, TV, CD, DVD, …) Instrument Gestures movements
This figure describes a typical interaction between composer, performer, and audience as found, for example, in classical music. However, there are many styles of music that do not have a score, or in which the composer and the performer roles areplayed by the same person (e.g., improvisation).
Kendall & Carterette (1990) view music performance as a communication system in which the musical notated ideas noted by composers on a score are recoded in sound by performers, and then recoded into musical ideas by
listeners.
1. Composers code musical ideas in notation (notational signal)
2. Performers recode from notation to sound (acoustical signal)
3. Listeners recode from sound to musical ideas
This communication system implies the sharing of implicit and explicit
knowledge (such as the familiarity with the tonal system of a given culture); at
the same time, composers, performers, and listeners also possess some
unshared implicit and explicit knowledge (for instance, the performer may
know specific instrumental techniques related to his or her instrument).
Different types of performance
•
Imp. Specific symbolic notation system, easier to pass down. Higher level of specification.
Performing or sight-reading a piece from a score(typical of Western art music)
▫ Many ambiguities or underspecified elements in a musical score (higher metrical levels, degree of
tension/relaxation, high-level grouping
boundaries)
• Improvisation
• Playing by ear
• Playing from memory
Many musical cultures do not use score-based performance (performing a piece froma score). Even in the Western tradition, there are many genres which are not (or not
primarily) score-based: folksongs, improvisation, etc…
A musical score always leaves room for interpretation. Although there is a tendency, especially in contemporary music, to write an increasing amount of details regarding the precise performance of a score, many elements are still underspecified. At a large-scale level, the degree of tension/relaxation and the shaping of the overall form of the piece are not usually defined in a score. At a local level, the precise dynamics
and articulation of individual notes are not always precisely notated.
In general, the use of the score codifies the musical practice to a much larger extent
that what can be seen in non-score based genres.
Parameters of Expressive Performance• Timing, Tempo
• Intensity • Articulation ▫ attack, tone connection • Vibrato • Intonation • Pedaling • Bowing (up/down, speed, pressure) • Fingering
Structure, tempo and dynamics
• “Systematic variations” in characteristic
rhythms:
▫ Waltz: shorter first beat, longer second beat
(Bengtsson & Gabrielsson 1977)
• Tempo fluctuations reflect the segmental
structure (phrasing)
• Phrase boundaries often expressed by a decreasein both tempo and dynamic levels (Henderson
1936)
