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BIOL71040 > Week 11: Nervous, Reproductive, and Urinary Systems > Flashcards

Week 11: Nervous, Reproductive, and Urinary Systems Flashcards

1
Q

True or False: Bladder infections are more common in females?

A

True

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2
Q

Which of the following is not a risk factor for a urinary tract infection?

  1. Incomplete bladder emptying
  2. Weakened immune system
  3. Catheterization
  4. Increased fluid intake
A
  1. Increased fluid intake
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3
Q

What is Meningitis?

A

Refers to inflammation of the meninges, the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.

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4
Q

What causes Meningitis?

A

Typically has an infectious cause—most commonly viral, bacterial, or fungal—but can also result from non-infectious causes like certain medications or autoimmune diseases.

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5
Q

What is Bacterial Meningitis?

A

A severe form of meningitis that often results from bacteria entering the CNS via the bloodstream, respiratory tract, or direct trauma.

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6
Q

T or F: If untreated, the mortality rate is high, reaching up to 70%, with survivors often experiencing lasting complications like hearing loss or neurological disabilities.

A

True

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7
Q

What are the different types of Bacterial Meningitis?

A
  1. Meningococcal Meningitis
  2. Pneumococcal Meningitis
  3. Haemophilus influenzae Type b (Hib)
  4. Neonatal Meningitis
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8
Q

What is Meningococcal Meningitis?

A

Caused by N. meningitidis, spreads through respiratory droplets and rapidly progresses. Unique signs include a petechial rash and severe outcomes like shock and organ failure. Treated with antibiotics, but vaccination is key for prevention.

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9
Q

What is Pneumococcal Meningitis?

A

Caused by S. pneumoniae, commonly affects young children and can cross the blood-brain barrier, leading to high mortality without treatment. Identified via gram stain, PCR, and latex agglutination, and often treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics.

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10
Q

What is Haemophilus influenzae Type b (Hib)?

A

Once a common cause in young children, now rare due to the Hib vaccine. It can cause severe outcomes like brain damage and is diagnosed with PCR and CSF culture. Prevention relies on vaccination.

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11
Q

What is Neonatal Meningitis?

A

Mainly caused by S. agalactiae (Group B strep) in newborns, contracted during birth or shortly after. Early signs include feeding difficulties and temperature instability, while late-onset may involve seizures and neck stiffness. Treated with antibiotics like penicillin.

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12
Q

What are some Viral causes of Meningitis?

A

Enteroviruses
Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)
Arboviruses
Mumps and Measles Viruses
Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV)

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13
Q

What are some Fungal causes of Meningitis?

A

Cryptococcus neoformans
Naegleria fowleri (Amoebic Meningitis = an amoeba)

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14
Q

What are signs and symptoms of Meningitis?

A

Severe headache, high fever, and nuchal rigidity (stiff neck) are the classic triad of symptoms in bacterial meningitis.
Additional signs include photophobia (sensitivity to light) and altered mental status (confusion or lethargy).
Nausea and vomiting, sometimes with purpuric skin lesions due to systemic inflammation.
Brudzinski’s sign, Kernig’s sign.

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15
Q

What is Brudzinski’s sign?

A

Involuntary lifting of the legs when the neck is flexed.

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16
Q

What is Kernig’s sign?

A

Pain and resistance when extending the knee with the hip flexed, indicating meningeal irritation

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17
Q

What is the difference between Bacterial, Viral, and Fungal Meningitis?

A

Bacterial progresses quickly and severely.
Viral is usually milder.
Fungal has a slower, chronic onset, often in immunocompromised individuals.

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18
Q

What sort of testing is done to diagnose Meningitis?

A

Spinal tap/Lumbar puncture
Blood tests
Imaging CT/MRI

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19
Q

What is Rabies?

A

Caused by different variants and species of the Lyssavirus; has the highest fatality rate of any human infectious disease

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20
Q

Explain Rabies’ Pathogenesis

A

Rabies virus replicates near the entry site in muscle cells, binding to receptors on muscle membranes.
The virus enters local motor and sensory nerves, migrating toward the spinal cord.
At the dorsal root ganglia, it ascends the spinal cord and infects key brain areas, including the diencephalon, hippocampus, and brainstem.
In the brain, the virus spreads widely along somatic and autonomic nerves to highly innervated areas, such as the salivary glands, for active replication and shedding.
Despite infecting many neurons, inflammation in the brain remains mild; characteristic Negri bodies are often present in neurons but are not diagnostic.

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21
Q

What are the symptoms of the Prodromal phase of Rabies?

A

Non-specific symptoms like fever, chills, myalgias, and weakness occur, lasting a few days to a week, often with pain or abnormal sensations near the wound site.

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22
Q

What can the Prodromal phase evolve into?

A

Encephalitic Rabies (most common)
Paralytic Rabies

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23
Q

What are the symptoms of Encephalitic Rabies?

A

Symptoms include hydrophobia, pharyngeal spasms, hyperactivity, autonomic instability, agitation, and muscle rigidity; leads to paralysis, coma, and death.

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24
Q

What are the symptoms of Paralytic Rabies?

A

Presenting as an ascending flaccid paralysis, starting at the wound site and progressing upward; can mimic Guillain-Barré syndrome; leads to respiratory failure.

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25
How do most people with Rabies die?
From respiratory failure, asphyxiation, or cardiac arrhythmias; rarely, patients survive with intensive care
26
How is someone tested for Rabies?
Saliva, skin, serum, CSF testing PCR on neck skin Antibody presence testing in serum
27
What is Poliomyelitis?
Caused by poliovirus; Is primarily an intestinal disease, but can involve the nervous system
28
How is Poliomyelitis spread?
Spread via the fecal-oral route or by respiratory droplets/contact; HIGHLY contagious
29
What are symptoms of Poliomyelitis?
Some are asymptomatic, others have issues with the CNS. In mild cases: sore throat, fever, headache. In severe cases: fever, headache, vomiting, meningitis
30
What are the 2 pathways severe polio can evolve into?
Nonparalytic and Paralytic polio
31
What is Nonparalytic Polio?
Severe symptoms without the presence of motor weakness
32
What is Paralytic Polio?
This form of Polio causes acute flaccid weakness due to spinal cord involvement, affecting muscles asymmetrically with more impact on proximal muscles, especially in the legs; Weakness may progress over days, potentially leading to respiratory failure and requiring ventilation, with motor recovery being slow and often incomplete.
33
What is the Pathogenesis of Polio?
Poliovirus initially replicates in the pharynx and gastrointestinal tract after entering through the mouth; The virus then invades local lymphoid tissue, enters the bloodstream, and can infect CNS cells; In the CNS, it replicates in motor neurons, causing cell destruction and flaccid paralysis; Severe cases may affect the respiratory system, potentially leading to death, with impaired patients requiring positive-pressure ventilation or, historically, iron lungs.
34
What are the available types of Polio vaccines?
Salk vaccine (Inactivated) Sabin vaccine (Oral)
35
How is Polio diagnosed?
Stool sample, oropharyngeal swabs, CSF sample
36
What is Botulism?
Gram-positive, endospore-forming rods and obligate anaerobes. Endospores from Clostridium are widespread in soil, water, feces, sewage, and marine sediments.
37
What are symptoms of Botulism?
Botulism typically presents with a sudden onset of bilateral cranial nerve issues and symmetrical, descending muscle weakness; Key signs include the absence of fever, symmetrical neurological deficits, and normal mental alertness. Heart rate and blood pressure are usually unaffected. Sensory functions remain intact, although blurred vision is a common symptom
38
What is Cystitis?
Inflammation of the bladder often caused by UTIs and bacterial infections, but can also be caused by irritants
39
What is Acute Simple Cystitis?
Confined to just the bladder
40
What are symptoms of Acute Simple Cystitis?
Dysuria, urinary frequency, urinary urgency, suprapubic pain
41
What is Acute Complicated Cystitis?
Infections beyond just the bladder
42
What are symptoms of Acute Complicated Cystitis?
Fever, chills, rigors, significant fatigue or malaise beyond baseline, or other features of systemic illness, flank pain, costovertebral angle tenderness, pelvic or perineal pain in males
43
What are risk factors for contracting Cystitis?
- Female anatomy (short urethra which is also closer to the anus) - Immunosuppressed or compromised - The elderly (immunosenescence plus challenges with emptying the bladder) - History of UTIs - Sexual and anal intercourse - Circumcision 
44
How is Cystitis diagnosed?
Urinalysis, cultures
45
What are 2 types of Renal Infections?
Pyelonephritis Glomerulonephritis
46
What is Pyelonephritis?
Inflammation of the kidney
47
What is Glomerulonephritis?
Inflammation of the glomeruli of the nephrons (can be acute or chronic)
48
What causes Pyelonephritis?
Infection of the kidney/upper urinary tract; Most often caused by E. coli
49
What are symptoms of Pyelonephritis?
Symptoms include back pain, fever, nausea/vomiting, and, in women, gross hematuria (30–40%); hematuria is rare in men.
50
What can Pyelonephritis lead to long-term?
Can lead to life-threatening bacteremia, systemic infection, and kidney scarring, potentially causing dysfunction.
51
How does Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN) work?
Often follows nephritogenic Streptococcus pyogenes infections in the throat or skin; Damage is caused by immune complexes lodging in the kidney, not by direct infection.
52
What are symptoms of Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN)?
Acute cases: Red/brown urine, proteinuria, edema, hypertension, and elevated serum creatinine. Severe cases: May present with hypertensive encephalopathy or acute pulmonary edema with minimal urinary abnormalities
53
How are Renal Infections diagnosed?
Cultures, Urinalysis, Serology
54
How are Renal Infections treated?
Antibiotics/Antiviral medications, supportive care, Blood pressure reduction meds, dialysis
55
What is Chlamydia?
Caused by gram-negative bacterium Chlamydia trachomati; The most common sexually transmitted infection
56
Are most cases of Chlamydia symptomatic or asymptomatic?
Asymptomatic
57
What are symptoms of Chlamydia in women?
Cervicitis: (discharge, bleeding, and cervix inflammation). Urethritis: (Dysuria and urinary symptoms, pyuria without bacterial growth). Pelvic Inflammatory Disease: (Abdominal/pelvic pain, with potential long-term complications like infertility). Pregnancy Complications: (Risk of preterm delivery and low birth weight).
58
What are symptoms of Chlamydia in men?
Urethritis: (Clear or mucoid discharge, dysuria, sometimes only noticed on undergarments). Epididymitis: (Unilateral testicular pain, tenderness, swelling). Prostatitis: (Chronic pelvic pain, dysuria, and pain with ejaculation)
59
How is Chlamydia diagnosed?
Nucleic Acid Amplification Testing (NAAT) Vaginal swabs, endo-cervical swab, urethral swab, first-catch urine, rectal and conjunctival swabs, pharyngeal swabs
60
What causes Syphilis?
Caused by Treponema pallidum, a gram-negative spirochete.
61
How is Syphilis spread?
Syphilis spreads through direct physical (usually sexual) contact.
62
What does Syphilis do?
T. pallidum lacks typical endotoxins but has lipoproteins that trigger immune responses, causing tissue damage. The bacteria quickly enter the bloodstream and spread to other tissues.
63
What are the 3 stages of Syphilis?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary
64
What occurs in the Primary Stage of Syphilis?
- Appears 10-90 days post-transmission with a single hard, painless lesion (chancre) on the cervix, penis, or anus. - Localized lymph node swelling may occur. - Lesion can heal on its own within 2-6 weeks, making detection difficult if unnoticed
65
What occurs in the Secondary Stage of Syphilis?
- Develops after the primary chancre heals. - Characterized by a rash on palms, soles, and body, which may include mucus patches or white, wart-like lesions (condylomata lata). - Symptoms include malaise, fever, and lymph node swelling. - Highly contagious and may recur in 25% of cases. - Lasts 2-6 weeks.
66
What occurs in the Tertiary Stage of Syphilis?
- May occur 10-20 years post-infection. - Features granulomatous lesions (gummas) in mucous membranes, bones, or organs. - Can cause severe damage, especially in the cardiovascular system (e.g., aortic aneurysm) and central nervous system (e.g., dementia, paralysis, sensory loss). - Fatal in severe cases.
67
What is Congenital Syphilis?
When T. pallidum is transmitted from a pregnant person to the fetus; May lead to miscarriage or stillbirth
68
What are some symptoms of Congenital Syphilis that infants may display?
Hepatomegaly, Jaundice, Nasal discharge ("snuffles"), Rash, Generalized lymphadenopathy, Skeletal abnormalities
69
What causes Gonorrhea?
Caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae
70
What does Gonorrhea do?
Can infect the urethra, but also other areas such as the skin, pharynx, meninges, and conjunctiva
71
What are signs of Gonorrhea in Men?
- Pain and burning during urination, discharge from the penis (yellow, green, or white), and sometimes swollen or tender testicles. - Can also cause rectal symptoms like discharge, soreness, bleeding, itching, and pain during bowel movements.
72
What are signs of Gonorrhea in Women?
- Pelvic pain, vaginal discharge, inter-menstrual bleeding, and pain or irritation with urination. - Chronic infection can lead to increased menstrual flow and rectal symptoms. - If gonorrhea spreads to the uterus or fallopian tubes it can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), leading to lower abdominal pain, vaginal discharge, fever, and in severe cases, infertility or risk of ectopic pregnancy.
73
Who was John Hunter?
A surgeon and anatomist that believed syphilis and gonorrhea were the same disease
74
What did John Hunter do to test his theory?
Infected himself with what he believed was gonorrhea, however actually he infected himself with both gonorrhea and syphilis
75
Who is Benjamin Bell (1749-1806)?
A surgeon that strongly disagreed with Hunter’s claim that gonorrhea and syphilis were the same disease.
76
What did Benjamin Bell do?
Bell conducted numerous experiments, including controlled transfers of gonorrheal infections among medical students and volunteers, to prove that gonorrhea and syphilis were separate infections.
77
Who was Philippe Ricord (1800-1889)?
A French physician and a later figure in this area, expanded on Bell’s work. Known for calling Paris “the capital of the syphilized world".
78
What did Philippe Ricord manage to do?
Ricord successfully demonstrated that syphilis and gonorrhea were indeed distinct diseases with different transmission mechanisms and clinical symptoms.
79
What is Human Papillomasvirus (HPV)?
Human papillomavirus (HPV) causes various types of warts, including genital warts (condylomata acuminata) (a common STI presenting as irregular, soft, pink growths on the genitalia or anus).
80
How many strains of HPV are there?
Over 200, ~40 of which cause STIs
81
What are high-risk HPV stains linked to?
They are linked to cervical and other cancers such as oropharyngeal and anal (Types 16 and 18 are examples of bad ones)
82
How is HPV diagnosed?
Pap testing
83
T or F: HPV testing is being added to cervical screening in Ontario in 2025
True
84
What are some treatments for genital warts?
Topical treatments Cryotherapy (freezing) Surgical removal Trichloroacetic acid (TCA)

BIOL71040 (12 decks)

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