Week 10 Lecture Flashcards
What is identity?
A comprehensive and coherent sense of self
When does identity start?
In infancy
What happens with identity through childhood, adolescence and adulthood?
Continues throughout childhood and becomes a focus in adolescence. Continues to grow and change well into adulthood.
By the second year of life, securely attached infants develop a sense of ____ and ___ according to Erik Erikson.
- Trust
2. Confidence
What abilities does increased trust and confidence in infancy increase?
Ability to explore the world physically, think and communicate.
In toddlerhood, what develops according to Erik Erikson?
autonomy.
Autonomy in toddlerhood coincides with the ability to do what according to Erik Erikson?
be independent and self-directed
balance own vs. parent’ demands for control
Healthy autonomy is established when toddlers encounter a reasonable balance between (according to Erik Erikson) (2):
- the freedom to explore
2. control
During the time that toddlers are developing autonomy, they are also developing a sense of____
self
When is the sense of self that infants develop in toddlerhood evident?
in everyday interactions
Development of self in toddlerhood appears to emerge in stages. What are these? (3)
- self recognition and self awareness
- self description and self evaluation
- knowledge of standards and emotional response to wrongdoing
What is one way to determine if toddlers have a sense of self recognition/awareness?
Put a bit of makeup on cheek. If mirror touched, not developed. If own cheek touched, sense of self has developed.
With self-identity, what do children start to develop in middle childhood, and what impact will this have later on?
- deeper understanding of the kind of person they are
2. foundation for later development of self-knowledge
At what age are children better able to integrate different traits and ideas about themselves?
by 10-12 years.
According to Erikson, what is the task of middle childhood?
industry, or competence
What is achievement motivation, which happens in middle childhood?
show initiative and persistance in attaining goals and increasing competence
What is learning orientation?
motivation that comes from within the learner and relates directly to the task
What is performance orientation”
motivation that comes from significant others
What is achievement motivation to increase competence achieved via?
-Learning orientation
and then eventually
-Performance orientation
What kind of changes allow adolescents think about the “big” questions?
Cognitive and physical changes.
Process of identity formation is ‘forced’ on adolescents by what?
increased cognitive capacity and societal pressure.
Adolescence can be characterised by risk taking: exploratory behaviour that may be either:
positive or negative.
Process of identity formation is ‘forced’ on adolescents by what?
increased cognitive capacity and societal pressure.
Erikson’s psychosocial “crisis” of adolescence is associated with that stage?
identity vs. role confusion
Involves development of coherent sense of self through examination of various beliefs.
Secure attachment to parents makes you more likely to make you do what in terms of adolescent identity development?
engage in both exploration and commitment
Greater parental encouragement and support is associated with what in terms of identity development?
Associated withw moratorium status, BUT may be more susceptible to foreclosure (not really thinking about the decision for yourself)
What role can a supportive peer network have on foreclosure status?
It can inhibit is
Persistent peer conflicts can have what influence on identity formation?
negatively affect
What are the teachers influence on adolescent identity development?
emphasise awareness and critical thinking encourages adolescent identity development
Teacher support for autonomy is positively correlated with what in relation to adolescent identity development?
correlated with vocational exploration and commitment
Some studies show a gender difference in progress toward identity achievement. How is this true for adolescents?
- males tend to form a firm identity before entering into intimate relationships
- female identity more tied up with relationship than is male identity
The two tasks of early adulthood (according to Erikson) are to develop the ability to:
- establish close, committed relationships
2. tolerate threat of fusion and loss of individual identity that comes with intense intimacy
What are the two tasks of middle adulthood according to Erikson?
- expand ego interests
2, establish and nurture next generation
can be a time of significant change
In middle adulthood according to Erikson, what does this stage often result in?
Reassessment of priorities
With Erikson’s identity in late adulthood, what is the task of these older adults?
to find integrity in the face of loss
What is the activity theory?
Older people who maintain activity levels age more successfully
What is the disengagement theory?
reduced social involvement is a natural and mutual process between older adults and society
Marcia maintained that two distinct parts form an adolescent’s identity:
- crisis: a time of upheaval when one’s values and choices are being explored and re-evaluated
- commitment: when the crisis is resolved, and one decides to invest in a course of action, role, or value
What is gender role development?
learning to behave in ways that are consistent with group norms for males/females
How did the lecturer define sex vs. gender?
- a physiological fact
2. a socio-psychological construct
What are gender roles:
defined by the range of behaviours expected of a particular gender group
What are gender stereotypes?
generalised mental representation that differentiates one gender group from the other
Even in today’s society, males and females are treated differently from:
birth
social expectations and behaviour can be governed by this socio-psychological construct:
gender
What year of life are gender based toy and activity preferences established?
during the first year of life
What are the differences in social behaviour seen in boys and girls by the age of 2 years?
girls: greater compliance and less independence than boys
boys: actively explore their environment to a greater extent than girls
One solution to bias in reporting and investigation of gender differences is by doing.a:
Has this found any strong or consistent personality differences between genders?
- meta analysis
2. No. For example in aggression (men more physically aggressive, women more verbally aggressive)
What do meta analyses’ tell us about nurturing behaviour in gender differences? (3)
- That there are no consistent gender differences.
- Situational factors are probably more important.
- Where differences are found, causation is unclear.
Are the differences within or between groups in gender differences greater?
WITHIN
What is the sociobiological view of gender roles?
Believes that gender roles were created in response to the prehistoric male-female role difference
Mother’s who were given androgens during pregnancy, their daughters exhibit:
- greater preferences for male companions
- more masculine play patterns
Mother’s who were pregnant with sons and exposed in utero to high levels of female hormones often exhibit:
more typical female behaviours
Boys with underdeveloped genitals/accidental castration, who doctors decided to bring them up as girls exhibit:
What does this suggest?
- gender identity dissatisfaction at puberty
- identify more with males than females
Suggests that sex hormones influence gender types behaviour and gender identity.
What do the social-emotional factors in gender roles depend on ?
culture
In the social emotional models, gender roles and behaviours are seen to be learned through _____. This is done via:
- reinforcement of gender appropriate behaviours.
2. modelling and self regulation of behaviours
What is the social learning theory (in gender role learning):
Parents reinforce children for gender appropriate behaviours and activities.
Are Father’s or Mothers more likely to reinforce gender sterotypes?
Father’s in general.
Are peers more likely to reinforce gender stereotypes or parents?
Peers.
Modelling is an ___ element in social learning
element
Modelling for gender roles may be provided by:
- adults
- other children
- wider societal models
Is the overall influence of reinforcement of adults/media modest or great?
modest
What is one weakness in social learning models for gender roles?
-can’t account for the fact that gender role rigidity varies across developmental stages
What kind of theories help address some of the weaknesses in social learning models?
cognitive theories
What are cognitive theorists in relation to gender roles?
believe that children are active processors of gender based info. Can construct their gender roles themselves by monitoring environment
What are the 3 stages of cognitive development in identity acquisition, according to Kohlberg’s model.
- gender labelling
- gender stability (however, may be fooled by appearances)
- gender constancy (realising that genders don’t change even if clothing etc does)
What are some aspects of the gender schematic processing theory, as developed by Martin and Halverson?
As soon as children have acquired their own gender identity, they begin to build a gender based schemas to tell them how to act.
What are some problems with cognitive models of gender role development?
- minimise influence of social environment
- no clear link between gender based cognitions and behaviours
Are boys or girls less likely to participate in gender crossed behaviours?
Boys.
What is gender role transcendence?
Individuals are viewed as individuals, not masculine, feminine or androgynous. Probably not ever going to completely happen.
What is androgyny?
allows males and females to behave in ways that freely integrate traditional gender type behaviour
Evidence from Lamke shows that individuals who are less concerned about which activities are appropriate or inappropriate for their sex are what?
Better adjusted than those with more traditional views.
