Week 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What are Qualitative Methods
A
- Focuses on qualities that are holistic in nature
- Looks at instances in context
- Interviewing
- Observing with note taking
- Ecinography
- Auto-Ecinography - Focus on self
- Analysing documents, text, data or social media or photovoice
2
Q
Why are Qualitative Methods Valueable
A
- Focuses on Lived Experience
- Honours Local Meaning - Focus on personal viewpoint not externa, imposed researcher viewpoint
- Preserves Chronological Flow - Which events occur in order and how they affect each other
- Bricolage - Makes sense of disparate data
- Rich, Holistic and Accessible\
- Explains Quantative Data
- Interdisciplinary
3
Q
Generalise Qualitative Data
A
- Statistical Generalisation
- Take random sample in a small group
- Then apply the result to the larger population
4
Q
Statistical Resonance
A
- Aesthetic Merit
- Naturalistic Generalisations
- Transferable Findings
- Critical Incidence Sampling
5
Q
Aesthetic Merit
A
- Writing Beautifully
- Evocative Writing
6
Q
Naturalistic Generalisations
A
- Emphasizes practical, functional application of research findings
- Intuitively falls naturally in line with readers’ ordinary experiences.
- Individuals learn from the generalizations mad in everyday experiences; Not just the authors
7
Q
Transferable Findings
A
- Extent to which writing can be applied in other contexts and studies.
- Interchangeable for terms generalisability and external validity.
8
Q
Critical Incident Sampling
A
- Choosing a sample that has the most likely comparison to gen pop
- If it is true about this group then it can be true of a greater group
*
9
Q
Bricolage
A
- Making something from nothing.
- Creation from a diverse range of things
- Doesn’t worry about the coherence of the words or ideas it uses
- Improvise a solution to a problem without proper or obvious tools or materials.
- Asking a question after the data has been provided
10
Q
Research Questions as Maps
A
- Often research is conducted without a clear direction
- Having a question can restrain you
- Maps can be a guide and doesn’t need accuracy
11
Q
Targeting Your Audience
A
- Ask “which authors do I really want to capture their attention”
12
Q
Empirical Research Question
A
- Think about Research Problem not Topic
- Who is the audience
- Make question Empirical not Theoretical
13
Q
Why Questions in Interview
A
Adults can get defensive if you ask why
Instead ask . . .
How is it that you came to . . . ? as it can be less invasive
14
Q
5 Tasks of Psychology Research
A
- Examine - how people think, feel and behave
- Discover - what influences feelings, thoughts and behaviours
- Determine - consequences of feelings, thoughts and behaviours
- Exploring - Perspective and meaning of occurrences
- Examine again - how ideas and events are represented in language
15
Q
Nomothetic Research
A
- Predicts future occurrences
- Requires large samples
- More suited to quantitative data
- Trades depth for generality
16
Q
Idiographic Research
A
- Seeks deeper detail understanding
- Requires more descriptive data
- Samples can be smaller and more manageable
- Trade generality for depth
17
Q
What is Qualitative Research
A
- Primarily focused on making sense of context
- Specific human experience
- Not just predicting behaviour
- Need to understand linguistics, history and social context
18
Q
Different Approaches
A
- A blend of approaches is needed
- e.g. Case studies, feminism, naturalistic enquiry
- Have Shared Characteristics
- Description, context, meaning, interpretation, truth, process.
19
Q
Thick Description
A
- Thorough concentrated descriptions
- Contains authors feelings & thoughts
- Also add objective information
20
Q
Research Contexts
A
- Occurs in everyday context
- Accounts for social, political, cultural and historical events
- Immersion to deeply understand a perspective
- Power relations have very real effects
- Theory development happens within this context
21
Q
Importance of Context
A
Objects take on meaning based on what we plan to do with them
22
Q
Importance of Meaning
A
Social experiences are concept-dependent
Unavoidably affected by the meanings attached to them
23
Q
Interpretation
A
- How we see the world
- Quantative screens out interpretation
- Qualitative says this is impossible - Interpretation is who we are
- Bridge between reality and understanding
- Always a gap when we don’t understand
24
Q
Surplus of Meaning
A
- Changes in relation to our understanding
- Understanding is changeable so continually changing
- There is always more to add, with new points of view
25
Q
Truth
A
- Qualitative challenges “what is true?”
- Single events are questionable because:
- One account is governed by one context
- Research by people about people
- One account based on one researchers opinion
26
Q
Aspects of Truth
A
- Reflexive - Researcher is central so they must reflect on themselves and the process
- Fidelity - Be committed to presenting a true representation of the study
- Created from agreed upon meanings as people talk
- Shared meanings become codified for medicine, law, education etc
- Recognised as normal and natural and central to arguements
27
Q
Process
A
- Meaning is negotiable - can change over time
- Need to understand ways meaning can change over time
- Continually revisit data to clarify and confirm understanding and reveal nuances
28
Q
Cycles of Research
A
- Cyclical & Non-Linear process
- Often go back to seek new evidence that might modify existing theory
- Generate new theory and repeat
29
Q
Emergent Design
A
- Nothing is assumed - even theories, and hypotheses can change context
- Theory emerges as we investigate
- Data collection is relativeley unstructured
30
Q
Neumann 1994 - Qualitative/Quantitative Divide
A
Allegedly separate and internal coherent approaches to research and theory
- These methods can be characterised below;
31
Q
Critiquing Definitions
A
- Commonality of Definitions
- need to counterpose methods that reflect quantification
32
Q
Commonality of Definitions
A
Examine & Compare qualitative methods against quantitative methods
33
Q
Negative Definitions
A
- Inevitably begin by stating what qualitative methods are not
- Need to understand both quantitative an qualitative
- Both methods arose as criticism of the other
- Responses address problems of both methodologies
34
Q
Critiquing Definitions
A
- Commonality of definitions - Examine and Compare both methods
- Qualitative - emerge recently as an alternative to mainstream
- Difficult to define and measure separate from Quantification
35
Q
Development of Qualitative Research
A
- Psychology is the science of the mind
- Research follows the hypothetic-deductive model (Scientific Method)
- Seeks to discover relationships with cause and effect
- Empirical testing: if correct it is true, if incorrect then it is rejected
36
Q
Experimentation and Qualitative Research
A
- Theories are adjusted to accommodate new facts
- Eventually, false theories are rejected
- Truth stands as false theories disappear
- Other sciences are the same
37
Q
Criticisms of the Scientific Method
A
- The Method is considered superior because it is objective and observable
- Problems such as ecological validity, ethics, volunteer characteristics, etc
- Parker 1994 - 3 Methodological Horrors
38
Q
THE 3 METHODOLOGICAL HORRORS
A
- Indexicality
- Inconcludability
- Reflexivity
39
Q
Indexicality
A
- Explanations are always tied to situations and change with time and context
- Problems of:
- Reliability, validity , generalisation
- Notions of replication
40
Q
Inconcludability
A
- An account is always incomplete
- Theories always supplemented and evolves this way
- Problems of theory building, definitiveness and deductive closure
41
Q
Reflexivity
A
- How we characterise ideas changes how it works for us
- This changes our perception, which changes characterisation etc
- Instability of social and psychological reality are obstacles to objectivity
42
Q
Stagnating Theory Development
A
- Scientific Method doesn’t leave space for theory development
- Emphasis on testing to replicate means new theories are unlikely to be generated
- Scientists unlikely to reject theories based on evidence
- Kuhn 1962 said When evidence fails a theory, scientists blame flaws in the experiment not flaws in the theory
43
Q
The Kuhn Cycle - Theory Development
A
- Science does not progress in a piecemeal manner
- Takes leaps in scientific revolutions that lead to paradigm shifts
- Qualitative methods contribute to new theory development
- Particularly in grounded theories with no priori hypothesis
44
Q
3 Horrors - Bridging the Gap
A
- Revolve around issues of context, meaning, interpretation
- The Gap between perception of objects and their representations
- This gap not acknowledged by science - Parker 1992
- Quantitative research works against the gap; Qualitative works with it
- Qualitative deals with horrors and has processes that acknowledge the gap and attempts to bridge it.
*
45
Q
Fighting the Horrors - Indexicality
A
- Admit work is never perfectly replicable
- Include accounts of changes over time
- Aim to describe a specific context instead of formulating rules (Idiographic)
46
Q
Fighting the Horrors - Inconcludability
A
- Aims to tell a plausible story not a complete one
- Welcomes change and openness
- Welcomes opportunity to supplement accounts
- Results are always provisional
47
Q
Fighting the Horrors - Reflexivity
A
- Regards subjectivity as a resource not a problem
- Researcher can’t be neutral so they can interact by knowing themselves
- By looking at the role of Researcher, plausible rounded accounts can be compiled
48
Q
Fighting the Horrors - Crisis in the 60’s + 70’s
A
An expression of the awareness that it is impossible to deal with interpretation by suppressing it.
49
Q
POEM Paradigm
A
P - Purpose
O - Ontology
E - Epistemology
M - Methodology
50
Q
POEM - Purpose
A
Why is research conducted
51
Q
POEM - Ontology
A
- What is the nature of reality
- What can be known about it.
52
Q
POEM - Epistemology
A
- The relationship between the Knower and what can be known
- What can we know about the world and how do we know it
53
Q
POEM - Methodology
A
How is the research carried out and investigated
54
Q
Research Paradigms
A
- Background knowledge tells us what we think exists
- How do you understand it? - Most concretely
- How do you think it should be studied
Systems of interrelated ways of thinking that define four dimensions:
- Purpose
- Ontology
- Epistemology
- Methodology
55
Q
POEM Paradigm
A
- Positivist
- Interpretive
- Constructionist
56
Q
Anti-Positivist Paradigm
A
- Developed into several paradigms - interpretivism, constructionism, critical
- Anti-Positivist common themes:
- Too much information lost in quantification
- Observation influenced by prior knowledge and opinion
- Different theories explain same data just as well
- Research is affected by other researchers purpose
57
Q
Choosing Sides - Qual or Quant
A
- No one paradigm is best - both are valid
- Depends on what you are trying to do
- Qual can be seen as a voice of the investigation
- Quant describes the scope and extent of an experience
58
Q
Comparative Shoppers
A
Fitting the methodology to the question being asked and they type of data needed to answer it.
59
Q
Understanding Paradigms - Top Line
A
Purpose - Research Question
Ontology - Nature of reality
Epistemology - Role of the Researcher
Methodology - How research is conducted
60
Q
Understanding Paradigms - 4 Paradigms
A
- Positivist
- Experiential Interpretivist
- Interpretivist
- Constructionist
61
Q
Understanding Paradigms - Positivist
A
- P - Determine differences and establish differences between groups
- O - Objective Truth, Naïve Realism, Materialism
- E - Neutral/detached observer, Empiricism
- M - Quantitative Method
62
Q
Understanding Paradigms - Experiential Interpretivist
A
- P - Exploring experience meaning, Assumes truth can be accessed through language
- O - Experiential Realist, Critical Realist
- E - Empathic Realist
- M - Some Thematic Analysis, Glaserian Grounded Theory
63
Q
Understanding Paradigms - Interpretivist
A
- P - Exploring meanings of stories, assumes truth cannot be accessed through language
- O - Critical realist, Pragmatic relativist
- E - Contextualist
- M - Straussian Grounded Theory, IPA or Narrative Analysis
64
Q
Understanding Paradigms - Constructionist
A
- P - Examine the construction of meaning
- O - Discursively Constructed through social norms/relativist
- E - Critical/Social constructionist
- M - Discourse Analysis or Foucauldian Discourse Analysis
65
Q
Positivism/Neo-Postivism
A
- Coined by Auguste Comte
- Study social science by using the same methods as natural science:
- e.g. Empiricism, Colleting data through observation
- Became neo-positivism when observation became an impediment to studying the mind
- Admitted that mental states can be inferred rather than observed directly
- Epistemology Framework and Ontology - Realism (naive realism, materialism)
66
Q
Interpretivist
A
- Cognitivism relies on deducing mental states
- Observable behaviour can infer mental states
67
Q
Social Constructionist
A
- Emerged in the 70’s in response to criticisms of scientific method
- Method might be inappropriate to understanding human behaviour
- Relativist Ontology - rejection of single reality
- Truth is relative
- Socially constructed through language
- Pursuit of psychology should study langauge
68
Q
Pragmatist
A
- Research uses philosophy and methodical approach
- This works best for problems being investigated
- Does it work? Then it’s probably right
- Associated with mixed methods research
69
Q
Psychology Research - 5 Tasks
A
- Examine
- Discover
- Determine
- Explore
- Examine again
70
Q
Language in Research
A
We examine ideas and how they are represented in language and their perspectives
71
Q
2 Different Objectives in Research
A
- Nomothetic Research
- Ideographic Research
72
Q
Nomothetic Resarch
A
- Dictates future outcomes
- Needs large Sample sizes
- Quantitative
- Very General
73
Q
Ideographic Research
A
- Deep and detailed understandings of events
- Thick descriptive language
- Small sample sizes
- More in depth but not general
74
Q
Qualitiative Research is . . .
A
- Focused on making sense of the human experience
- Within context and not future prediction
- Reflexive - Encourages study of subjective and objective experiences
- Insists on linguistic, historical and social context to observe human behaviour
75
Q
Types of Qualitative Research Approaches
A
There are many and numerous styles but they all have these characteristics:
- Description
- Context
- Meaning
- Interpretation
- Truth
- Process
76
Q
Context of Research
A
- occurs in everyday contexts
- Accounts for wider social political and cultural context
- Is immersive to understand at many different levels
- Power relations have real effects
77
Q
Context Shapes . .
A
- Subject of investigation
- Standpoint of the investigators
- How we approach research
- Objects take on meaning in relation to the context in which we use them
78
Q
Interpretation
A
- How I see the world
- Quant screens out interpretation - tries to be objective
- Qual believes this is impossible
- The world is always interpreted
- Not what we do but who we are
79
Q
Gap Between Interpretation and Understanding
A
- Bridges reality with what we know
- Notice there is a gap between the things we know and the account of what they are
80
Q
Surplus of Meaning
A
- Meaning and interpretation are unstable
- changes in as our understanding of the world changes
- There is always more to add and different ideas to develop
81
Q
Truth
A
- Notion of truth raises doubts by the Qualitative Method
- Any single explanation of a phenomenon is questionable because it is incomplete
- There is only one context or history
- Done buy people about people
- Don’t just study one phenomenon, Also motivations intentions and beleifs
82
Q
Reflexive Practice
A
- Researcher must:
- Reflect on themselves and the process
- Be committed to a TRUE representation of the study
83
Q
Fidelity in Research
A
Researcher must:
- Be committed to preset a true representation of the study
- Remain objective about the outcome and not manipulate the result
84
Q
Truth
A
- Created within social interaction
- Created by agreed upon meanings as we talk about experiences
- Shared meanings become normalised in law, medicine etc
85
Q
Meaning is negotiable
A
- Can change and evolve over time
- We examine the process of meaning change by revisit ideas and data
- Cyclical Process/Non-Linear process often looking back to old data, modifying theories and repeat
- Theory is expected to emerge as investigation proceeds
86
Q
Emergent Design
A
Theories emerge from investigation
Few/No prior hypotheses
Data Collection is relatively unstructured
87
Q
Positivist Paradigm
A
- Ontology
- Stable, external reality
- Law-like
- Epistemology
- Objective
- Detached observer
- Methodology
- Experimental
- Quantitative
- Hypothesis
88
Q
Interpretive Paradigm
A
- Ontology
- Internal reality of subjective experience
- Epistemology
- Empathetic
- Observer intersubjectivity
- Methodology
- Interactional
- Interpretation
- qualitative
89
Q
Constructionist Paradigm
A
- Ontology
- Socially constructed reality
- Discourse
- Epistemology
- Suspicious
- Political
- Observer constructing versions
- Methodology
- Deconstruction
- textual analysis
- Discursive psychology
90
Q
Social Constructionist View
A
- Truth is constructed through language
- Study of psychology should include the study of Language
