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Geography > Water Cycle > Flashcards

Water Cycle Flashcards

Hydrological processes, influences, insecurity and management

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1
Q

Why is the water cycle a closed system?

A

There is a fixed amount of water on Earth: no water is created or destroyed

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2
Q

Examples of stores

A
  • Oceans
  • Lakes
  • Aquifers
  • The cryosphere
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3
Q

What are aquifers?

A

A body of permeable rock which can contain or transmit groundwater

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4
Q

What is the cryosphere?

A

Water stored as ice in the Antarctic or Arctic

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5
Q

What percentage of water is stored in oceans?

A

97%

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6
Q

What are flows?

A

How water moves from one store to another

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7
Q

Examples of flows?

A
  • Infiltration
  • Throughflow
  • Percolation
  • Channel flow
  • Surface run-off
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8
Q

What are some examples of processes that drive water flows?

A
  • Evaporation
  • Transpiration
  • Precipitation
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9
Q

What percentage of water is fresh?

A

2.5%

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10
Q

What percentage of freshwater is in the cryosphere?

A

68.8%

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11
Q

What percentage of freshwater is stored as groundwater?

A

30%

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12
Q

What is a drainage basin?

A

An area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet

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13
Q

Three types of precipitation

A
  • Orographic
  • Frontal
  • Convectional
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14
Q

What is orographic precipitation?

A
  • Moist air rises over mountains
  • It then cools and condenses at the top of the mountain, bringing precipitation
  • Once passed over the mountain, it descends and warms, creating a rain shadow
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15
Q

What is frontal precipitation?

A
  • Occurs when a warm front meets a cold front
  • Heavier cold air sinks and warmer air rises above it
  • As warm air rises, it cools, forming clouds and precipitation
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16
Q

What is convectional precipitation?

A
  • Solar radiation warms air
  • Warm air begins to rise
  • Then then air cools and condenses into clouds
  • These clouds can produce heavy rainfall and thunderstorms
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17
Q

What processes are outputs in a drainage basin?

A
  • Evaporation
  • Transpiration
  • Channel flow
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18
Q

What is evaporation?

A

When water turns to water vapour (liquid to gas)

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19
Q

What is transpiration?

A

Water leaving plants through holes in their leaves

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20
Q

What is channel flow?

A

The volume of water that flows in a river channel

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21
Q

What water flows are there in a drainage basin?

A
  • Interception
  • Infiltration
  • Direct runoff
  • Saturated overland flow
  • Throughflow
  • Percolation
  • Groundwater flow
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22
Q

What is interception?

A

When plants capture precipitation in their leaves

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23
Q

What is infiltration?

A

When precipitation enters the soil

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24
Q

What is direct runoff?

A

When water from precipitation or snowmelt flows across the ground’s surface (the surface is impermeable like tarmac)

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25
Q

What is saturated overland flow?

A

When the ground is full of water, resulting in runoff

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26
Q

What is throughflow?

A

The horizontal flow of water between soil/rock layers

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27
Q

What is percolation?

A

The vertical flow of water between soil and rock layers

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28
Q

What is groundwater flow?

A

The flow of water horizontally once it has reached the water table

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29
Q

How does vegetation cover affect a drainage basin?

A

When an area has a high coverage of vegetation, the interception and evapotranspiration increase but the surface runoff decreases

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30
Q

How does soil type affect a drainage basin?

A

Impermeable soils can stop infiltration and lead to surface saturation and increased surface runoff.

When there are permeable soils, infiltration and percolation can happen. This can cause groundwater to recharge.

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31
Q

How does land relief affect a drainage basin?

A

Steeper slopes mean faster surface runoff and shorter times for water storage

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32
Q

How does climate affect a drainage basin?

A

Where cold climates allow for precipitation to fall as snow, the water can be stored and held back until it is thawed (melted)
-> This may reduce channel flow during winter but lead to an increase during summer due to glacial melt water

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33
Q

How does rock type affect a drainage basin?

A

Some rocks are impermeable and can stop the infiltration of water into the ground.

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34
Q

How does deforestation affect a drainage basin?

A
  • Reduced interception, rainfall strikes soil directly which causes soil compaction
  • Soil compaction and removing tree roots increases infiltration
  • Increased surface runoff and more soil erosion and flooding
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35
Q

How do reservoirs affect drainage basins?

A
  • Increased water lost from evaporation
  • Dams reduce flow downstream, vegetation dies
  • Vegetation may grow on reservoir surface, causing evapotranspiration
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36
Q

What is abstraction?

A

The process by which humans remove water from underground water stores

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37
Q

Why is over-abstraction a problem?

A

Can lead to rivers drying up and periods of low rainfall

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38
Q

How does urbanisation affect a drainage basin?

A
  • Leads to a large number of impermeable surfaces, like tarmac
  • This reduces infiltration and increases surface runoff
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39
Q

What % of water on Earth is available for human use?

A

1%

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40
Q

What is residence time?

A

The amount of time water is held in a store

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41
Q

What is fossil water?

A

Non-renewable, untouched, ancient freshwater stores

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42
Q

Where can fossil water stores be found?

A

Beneath deserts and in polar areas

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43
Q

Why is fossil water becoming more available?

A

New technology such as oil drilling techniques and satellite imagery

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44
Q

What is the global water budget?

A

The balance between water being evaporated from the oceans and precipitated onto the land

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45
Q

Hydrology of a polar area

A
  • Cryosphere, made up of ice sheets and glaciers
  • Little vegetation due to low temperature and limited light
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46
Q

What is permafrost?

A

Soil that is permanently frozen

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47
Q

What % of solar radiation is reflected off snow and ice in winter in polar climates?

A

85%

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48
Q

What are biogenic gases?

A

Gases produced or used by organisms such as methane

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49
Q

Difference in polar hydrology between winter and summer?

A

WINTER:
- Ground, lakes and rivers frozen in the cryosphere
- Solar radiation reflected

SUMMER:
- Frozen water thaws, rapid surface runoff, increased evaporation
- Biogenic gases released by ice and soil thawing

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50
Q

What % of precipitation is returned via evapotranspiration in tropical climates?

A

Around 50%

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51
Q

Hydrology of a tropical area

A
  • Vegetation collects precipitation
  • Consistent temperature and sunlight
  • High rainfall
  • Generate their own water cycle due to convectional rainfall
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52
Q

Consequences of deforestation on a tropical area’s water cycle

A
  • Reduced evapotranspiration and precipitation
  • Water instead travels through rivers and streams (slower)
  • Vegetation is crucial for the area’s convectional rainfall
  • Rainfall is essential for maintaining ecosystems
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53
Q

Where is the Yukon river?

A

Alaska

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54
Q

How does the Yukon’s flow vary between winter and summer?

A

In winter it is frozen so flow is lower
In summer there is snowmelt and the flow dramatically increases

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55
Q

Is there much human interference with the Yukon river?

A

No - the area is largely natural

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56
Q

What is the climate of the Amazon?

A
  • Tropical
  • Consistent high temperature
  • Wet and dry seasons
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57
Q

How does the flow of the Amazon river vary?

A

While there is little variation as the temperature and precipitation levels stay mostly consistent, it does increase more in the wet season

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58
Q

How do dams in Brazil affect the Amazon river’s flow?

A
  • More discharge above the dam
  • Reduced flow below the dam
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59
Q

Where is the Murray-Darling river?

A

Australia

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60
Q

What is a rain shadow?

A

The basin is surrounded by mountains that collect most of the region’s rain, which causes periods of prolonged drought

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61
Q

Issue with the Murray-Darling river?

A

Its basin is mostly in a rain shadow

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62
Q

What is the climate like in the Murray-Darling river basin?

A

North: Monsoon
South: Temperate
Wet and dry season causes different river flows.

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63
Q

What do humans use the Murray-Darling river for?

A
  • Water for cities
  • Irrigating farms
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64
Q

Why is it bad that the natural flow path of the Murray-Darling has been altered?

A
  • Loss of habitat for local animals
  • Decline in quality of water
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65
Q

Definition of drought

A

When an area suffers from a water deficit

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66
Q

4 types of drought

A
  • Meteorological
  • Agricultural
  • Hydrological
  • Socio-economic
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67
Q

What is a meteorological drought?

A

When an area is much dryer than the normal level of precipitation for that time of year

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68
Q

What is an agricultural drought?

A

When there is insufficient water for crops, leading to the loss of crops without irrigation

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69
Q

What is a hydrological drought?

A

When the drainage basin suffers shortfalls, such as reduced streamflow

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70
Q

What is a socio-economic drought?

A

When there is a demand for water to be used in social and economic purposes

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71
Q

What does ENSO stand for?

A

El Nino Southern Oscillation

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72
Q

How often does El Nino happen?

A

Every 3-5 years

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73
Q

What happens during El Nino?

A
  • South America experiences increased rainfall due to lower air pressure
  • Australia experiences less rainfall and is more likely to have a drought
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74
Q

How is Australia affected by El Nino?

A

During an El Nino year they get less rainfall so are more likely to experience droughts

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75
Q

What happens during La Nina?

A
  • Low air pressure descends on South East Asia and Australia, increasing their rainfall
  • South America has higher air pressure and less rainfall, which may lead to a drought
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76
Q

What may cause a short-term precipitation deficit?

A

A sudden change in air pressure

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77
Q

What does a storm hydrograph show?

A

How river discharge changes over time at a particular point in the river

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78
Q

What is river discharge?

A

The volume of water each second flowing into a river

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79
Q

5 features of storm hydrographs

A
  • Peak discharge
  • Peak rainfall
  • Lag time
  • Rising limb
  • Falling limb
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80
Q

What is lag time on a storm hydrograph?

A

The interval between peak rainfall and discharge

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81
Q

What is the rising limb on a storm hydrograph?

A

When the discharge is increasing

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82
Q

What is the falling limb on a storm hydrograph?

A

When the discharge is decreasing

83
Q

What physical factors affect storm hydrographs?

A
  • Rock type
  • Soil type
  • Size and shape of the drainage basin
  • Relief
  • Vegetation
84
Q

How does the size and shape of a drainage basin affect a storm hydrograph?

A

The larger the catchment of the basin, the higher the peak discharge, but the lag time is longer

85
Q

Example of a permeable rock

A

Limestone

86
Q

What human factors affect storm hydrographs?

A
  • Water management (dams and reservoirs)
  • Abstraction of aquifers
  • Urbanisation
  • Land use (deforestation)
87
Q

What is a drought?

A

When an area suffers a water deficit

88
Q

4 types of drought

A
  1. Meteorological
  2. Agricultural
  3. Hydrological
  4. Socio-economic
89
Q

What is a meterological drought?

A

When there is less rainfall than the normal precipitation levels for that area

90
Q

What is an agricultural drought?

A

When there is insufficient water for crops

91
Q

What is a hydrological drought?

A

When the drainage basin suffers shortfalls such as reduced streamflow in rivers

92
Q

What is a socio-economic drought?

A

When there demand for water in everyday life exceeds the availability

93
Q

What physical factor can cause a short-term precipitation deficit?

A

In areas that are used to low-pressure systems they may have a change in weather and experience a high pressure system.

Cool air sinking in a high pressure system does not have the ability to form clouds.

94
Q

What year did Brazil have droughts?

A

2014-15

95
Q

Why did Brazil have droughts?

A

Over-abstraction of groundwater

96
Q

What caused the over-abstraction of groundwater in Brazil?

A

The Brazilian government had not properly monitored and an estimated 70% of wells were illegal

97
Q

Why are illegal wells dangerous?

A

They are not filtered so water may contain pollutants and bacteria

98
Q

What is ecosystem resilience?

A

How capable an ecosystem is of responding to an event (e.g. drought)

99
Q

How are rainforests impacted by drought?

A
  • Younger trees die which reduces canopy cover
  • Reduced canopy cover means less interception and EVT
  • Rainfall decrease
100
Q

How can droughts affect forests?

A

With dead vegetation and lots of sunlight, wildfires are common as dry organic material easily sets alight

101
Q

Example of wildfires

A

Croatia experienced 2.5 months of no rainfall in 2017

102
Q

How are wetlands impacted by drought?

A
  • Vegetation dies
  • This reduces habitats for wild animals
  • This can create a knock on effect as food chains are disrupted
103
Q

Example of a wetland affected by drought?

A

In Minsmere, Suffolk, birds such as snipe and thrush are less able to penetrate the dry soil to reach the inverbrates they feed off

104
Q

Human causes of flooding

A
  • Agricultural activity
  • River management (e.g. building dams)
  • Urbanisation
  • Deforestation
  • Floodplain drainage
105
Q

How can agricultural activity lead to increased flooding?

A

Having more soil exposed causes increased soil erosion, so less infiltration can take place

106
Q

What is channelisation?

A

When the river is widened or deepened

107
Q

How can urbanisation lead to increased flooding?

A
  • The removal of vegetation causes increased surface run-off
  • Impermeable surfaces like concrete reduce infiltration
108
Q

How can artificial drainage lead to increased flooding?

A

The lag time to reach the river is significantly reduced, so the chance of reaching peak discharge is much higher

109
Q

How can deforestation caused increased flooding?

A
  • Less interception from trees
  • Removal of plants decreases infiltration
110
Q

Why are floodplains drained?

A

The land is often extremely fertile and perfect for agricultural activity

111
Q

What is a consequence of draining floodplains?

A
  • Habitats destroyed
  • The area dries out and becomes lower, increasing flood risk
112
Q

What do low pressure systems cause?

A

Intense storms which can produce heavy rainfall

112
Q

What do low pressure systems cause?

A

Intense storms which can produce heavy rainfall

113
Q

What is a depression?

A

Low air pressure systems that cause a lot of rain

114
Q

How are depressions caused?

A
  • Two air masses, one hot and one cold
  • Cold air pushes hot air up
  • Hot air cools
  • Condensation occurs and then precipitation
115
Q

Why does heavy rain lead to flooding?

A

The soil becomes saturated, stopping infiltration and increasing surface run off

116
Q

What is a monsoon?

A

A seasonal change in the direction of prevailing wind which leads to an annual period of heavy rain in an area

117
Q

Example of a monsoon causing human loss

A

Myanmar 2015
103 deaths

118
Q

Why can mountainous areas be prone to flooding?

A

Snowmelt at spring time can increase water levels and cause flash floods

119
Q

How can flooding negatively affect the environment?

A
  • Plants can be uprooted
  • Farmer’s crops completely destroyed
  • Ecosystems affected (lack of food, shelter, etc)
120
Q

How many homes were without power in the 2015 Cumbria floods?

A

42,000 - caused by flooded power station being shut off

121
Q

How many homes were flooded in the 2015 Cumbria floods?

A

5,000

122
Q

Cost of damage to homes from the 2015 Cumbria floods?

A

£150m

123
Q

How many bridges were damaged in the 2015 Cumbria floods?

A

100

124
Q

How much did the 2015 Cumbria floods set back the local economy?

A

£200m

125
Q

How will climate change impact precipitation?

A
  • Increased in some regions
  • Likelihood of tropical storms increases
  • Sea levels rise
  • Many areas that are used to precipitation face a reduction
126
Q

How will climate change impact evaporation?

A
  • Increased temperatures causes more evaporation
  • If temperature decreases below freezing water stored as ice so reduced evaporation
127
Q

How will climate change affect lakes?

A
  • Not being recharged due to reduced rainfall
128
Q

How has Lake Chad been affected by climate change?

A
  • Once 3rd largest freshwater lake in Africa
  • Now 1/20 size it originally was
  • Many African countries like Cameroon and Nigeria rely on it as a water source
129
Q

How will climate change affect snow and glaciers?

A
  • Reduction in ice-forming seasons
  • Sea ice breaking off into smaller icebergs
130
Q

In what year was there the smallest amount of winter ice recorded?

A

2018

131
Q

How will climate change affect permafrost?

A
  • If soil temperatures go above freezing permafrost can thaw
  • This leads to percolation and throughflow
132
Q

How will climate change affect soil?

A
  • Soil moisture levels decrease as less infiltration
  • This is because of droughts as well as more intense rainfall
133
Q

What happens in a La Nina year?

A
  • Increased drought risk in South America
  • Increased flood risk in Australia
134
Q

What areas are most at risk for future droughts?

A

USA
Central America
Mediterranean

135
Q

Why are Spain and Greece at high risk of drought?

A
  • High population
  • Over-reliance on tourism
136
Q

What percentage of Bangladesh is on a floodplain?

A

70%

137
Q

Why is Bangladesh at high risk of flooding?

A
  • Himalayan glaciers melt
  • Very low lying
  • Sea level rise
  • Cyclones more common
138
Q

Is the Sahel becoming wetter or dryer?

A

There have been five significantly wetter years. Locals have taken advantage of this and replenished water.

139
Q

How much precipitation does the Sahel get?

A

100-600mm per year

140
Q

When is the Sahel rainy season?

A

July to September
90% annual rainfall during this period

141
Q

How much did rainfall decrease during the 70s and 80s in Sahel?

A

Around 40%. This led to civil war in Ethiopia

142
Q

What is water stress?

A

An area with less than 1,700 cubic metres per person of water

143
Q

What is water scarcity?

A

An area with less than 1,000 cubic metres per person of water

144
Q

What human factors are causing increased water stress?

A
  • Rising population
  • Increased living standards
  • Agriculture insufficiency
  • Industrialisation
145
Q

How do farmers in Tanzania access water?

A
  • Pay a one-off annual fee to use a source (e.g. well)
  • This leads to farmers using more than necessary because they ‘paid for it’
146
Q

Why does industry use so much water?

A
  • Energy production is very water-intensive as steam is needed to power turbines
  • Water is needed to clean products
147
Q

Why are countries like Morocco and UAE most at risk from water stress?

A
  • Found at 30 degrees north, where Hadley and Ferrell cells meet
  • When these cells meet there is an area of high pressure
  • There is no cloud formation and minimal rainfall
148
Q

What countries are least at risk from water stress?

A
  • Brazil, gets lots of rainfall due to area of low pressure
  • Canada, lots of ice
149
Q

Why does the USA have high water stress?

A
  • High living standards, largest consumption of water per capita in the world
  • High amount of water used for industry
150
Q

Why does Russia have low water stress?

A
  • High landmass compared to population
  • Regular precipitation
151
Q

What are some physical causes of water insecurity?

A
  • Climate
  • Salt water encroachment
152
Q

What is salt water encroachment?

A

Groundwater near the coast contaminated with salt water

Caused by:
- Coastal erosion
- Local overabstraction of groundwater

153
Q

Why is Tuvalu at risk from climate change?

A
  • Highest point is 3m above sea level
  • Sea level rise has lead to salt water encroachment
  • This has destroyed much of the farming land, hurting their food supply
154
Q

What are some human causes of water insecurity?

A
  • Over-abstraction of aquifers
  • Water contamination from agriculture
  • Water pollution from industry
155
Q

What are some human causes of water insecurity?

A
  • Over-abstraction of aquifers
  • Water contamination from agriculture
  • Water pollution from industry
156
Q

What percentage of aquifers are said to be over-abstracted?

A

20%

157
Q

How has Rajasthan, India suffered from over-abstraction of aquifers?

A
  • Coca-cola bottling factory abstracted so much water that the water table fell 15m in 10 years
  • This led to many farmers protesting
158
Q

How can agriculture pollute water?

A

Excess fertilisers and pesticides can be washed away by rainwater. This makes the water unsafe for human use.

159
Q

What percentage of water in the world is used in agriculture?

A

70%

160
Q

How can industry cause water pollution?

A
  • Lack of regulation allows chemicals to enter water
  • Mining causes dangerous metals to enter waterways
  • Untreated sewage can spread harmful bacteria through water
161
Q

Why does the privitisation of water companies make water more expensive?

A

Often water companies want to make a profit so charge more for water

162
Q

Why did the privitisation of the water company fail in Bolivia?

A
  • Company raised prices to around 20% of the average income
  • Poorest could not afford and began to illegally tap into the water supply
  • Protests led to the government cancelling the contract
163
Q

5 principles of the Water Poverty Index

A
  • Availability
  • Accessibility (distance to safe water access)
  • Handling capacity (management techniques)
  • Use and efficiency
  • Environmental sustainability
164
Q

How much will food production need to rise to feed the population by 2050?

A
  • 60%
  • This will need 140% more water
165
Q

How many children die of water-borne diseases in Nigeria each year?

A

335,000

166
Q

Why is water needed for energy production?

A

Steam is used to turn turbines to generate electricity

167
Q

By what percentage is water needed for industrial use set to increase 2000-2050?

A

4000%

168
Q

How many countries does the river Nile pass through?

A

11

169
Q

Why has Egypt threatened other nations with war in relation to the river Nile?

A

Any country upstream that tries to dam the river would limit Egypt’s already fragile water supply

170
Q

What year did Ethiopia begin building a dam on the Nile?

A

2011

171
Q

How many countries does the river Mekong provide water to?

A

6

172
Q

What is a consequence of China damming the river Mekong?

A

Other countries water supply will be affected

173
Q

Name of dam on Omo river in Ethiopia?

A

Gilgel Gibe III Dam

174
Q

Advantage and disadvantage of the dam in Ethiopia on the Omo river?

A

Advantage: Provides sustainable electricity
Disadvantage: 200,000 people, largely indigenous, rely on the seasonal floods for farming

175
Q

Aim of China’s South-North water transfer project?

A

Aims to deliver 25bn cubic metres of water to the North through two routes

176
Q

Why is the South-North water transfer project needed?

A
  • 2/3 farmland in the North of China
  • 80% of water is in the South
177
Q

Economic cons of the South-North water transfer project

A
  • Expensive ($80bn)
  • Likely that the water will be expensive for farmers to use in high volumes, so they will likely still use groundwater
178
Q

Social con of the South-North water transfer project

A
  • Over 300,000 people displaced
179
Q

Environmental cons of the South-North water transfer project

A
  • Water shortages in the North largely caused by water pollution. This issue should be fixed instead of artificially transferring water
  • Removing water from the Yangtze could be devastating for ecosystems
180
Q

Cons of the Three Gorges Dam

A
  • 1.3m people relocated
  • 1,500 villages lost
  • Water quality is poor due to pollutant runoff
  • Many ecosystems flooded, harming local animals
181
Q

Pros of the Three Gorges Dam

A
  • Can control flooding on the Yangtze
  • Provides HEP energy, reduction in fossil fuels
  • Can help with the South-North water transfer
182
Q

What are desalination plants?

A

Removing salt from seawater to make clean drinking water

183
Q

What country has 70% of its water from desalination?

A

Israel

184
Q

Pros of desalination

A
  • Endless supply of water from the sea
  • Can produce up to 600 tonnes of clean drinking water an hour
185
Q

Cons of desalination

A
  • Extremely energy exhaustive, requires a power station for each plant
  • By-product brine is extremely damaging to local ecosystems
186
Q

What is smart irrigation?

A

A method of providing crops with the optimum level of water

187
Q

Example of a smart irrigation technique

A

Drip feeding:
Water goes directly into the soil, minimising the loss to evaportation

188
Q

How has smart irrigation helped Australia?

A
  • 60% increase in water productivity
  • Improvements in fruit quality
189
Q

Why does Singapore struggle with water scarcity?

A
  • City state with population 5.4m
  • Extremely densely populated
  • High temperature = high evaporation
  • Limited land available for water collection and storage
190
Q

How does Singapore sustainably manage its water?

A

Their NEWater scheme purifies used water into high-grade drinking water. Currently around 30% of water is recycled

191
Q

Singapore imports water from which country?

A

Malaysia

192
Q

What is Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)

A
  • Focus on both conservation and development of the river
  • Aim to maximise socio-economic potential while protecting ecosystems
193
Q

Why does the Colorado river basin need a IWRM plan?

A
  • Travels through two countries (US and Mexico)
  • Across many ecosystems (Such as Rocky Mountains and semi-arid areas of Mexico)
  • The population is growing which is increasing water insecurity
  • Climate change is adding further pressure
194
Q

What year was the Colorado River Storage Project?

A

1956

195
Q

What did the Colorado River Storage Project provide?

A

Allowed for irrigation development as well as HEP production

196
Q

What did the Colorado River Storage Project provide?

A

Allowed for irrigation development as well as HEP production

197
Q

How many dams are there along the Colorado river?

A

29

198
Q

Year of Helsinki Water Convention?

A

1992

199
Q

Aim of Helsinki Water Convention

A
  • To improve and protect water quality
  • Ensuring this was done in a sustainable manner
  • Improving co-operation for transboundary water conflicts
200
Q

Result of the Helsinki Water Convention

A

Established IWRM

201
Q

Year of the Berlin Rules agreement

A

2004

202
Q

Aim of the Berlin Rules agreement

A

To state how freshwater resources should be shared and adopts nine water management principles

203
Q

Examples of principles from the Berlin rules

A
  1. Environmental, social and economic needs must be met
  2. Everyone must co-operate over shared resources
  3. Upstream developments must be controlled

Geography (8 decks)

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