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Geography > Carbon Cycle > Flashcards

Carbon Cycle Flashcards

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1
Q

Why is the carbon cycle a closed system?

A

There are no inputs or outputs

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2
Q

What is a carbon flux?

A

The flows of carbon between different stores - these differ in size

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3
Q

3 parts of the carbon cycle

A
  • Stores
  • Fluxes
  • Processes
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4
Q

What are carbon stores measured in?

A

Pentagrams of carbon (PgC)

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5
Q

What is the hydrosphere and how much carbon does it store?

A

38,000 PgC
Dissolved carbon stored in bodies of water

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6
Q

What is the lithosphere and how much carbon does it store?

A

100,000 PgC
Rocks like calcium carbonate and fossil fuels

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7
Q

What is the biosphere and how much carbon does it store?

A

2,000 PgC
Animals and plants (dead and living)

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8
Q

What is the atmosphere and how much carbon does it store?

A

750 PgC
Gases like carbon dioxide

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9
Q

3 forms carbon can be stored in

A
  • Solid (e.g. calcium carbonate)
  • Liquid (e.g. dissolved in bodies of water)
  • Gas (e.g. carbon dioxide)
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10
Q

How do organisms contribute to the carbon cycle?

A
  • Photosynthesis - plants remove CO2 from the atmosphere
  • Respiration - all organisms release CO2 as they breathe and grow
  • Decomposition - decaying organisms release CO2 as they break down
  • Combustion - burning fossil fuels or biomass releases CO2
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11
Q

How does natural gas form?

A
  • Aquatic organisms (organic matter) fall to the ocean bed after death
  • Due to compression and cementation they form into sedimentary rock
  • During these processes, crude oil and natural gas can form
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12
Q

How do carbon fluxes vary in time?

A

The quickest processes (i.e. photosynthesis) is completed in seconds while it can take years for dead organic matter to return its carbon

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13
Q

How can terrestrial carbon be converted into atmospheric carbon?

A

Terrestrial carbon stored within the mantle is released into the atmosphere through the process of ‘out-gassing’ during volcanic eruptions

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14
Q

How does coal form?

A

When land-based plants die and enter into swamps they slowly settle and compact into peat and coal

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15
Q

How does limestone form?

A
  • Phytoplankton die and sink to the bottom of the ocean
  • As sediment falls on them, they are compacted
  • When they are 100m in depth, pressure and chemical reactions cause cementation to take place
  • This forms limestone
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16
Q

How does crude oil form?

A
  • Fine-grain sediments and biologically degraded materials settle
  • There needs to be 2% organic carbon
  • A series of anaerobic reactions turn the organic carbon into a liquid
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17
Q

Why might crude oil be able to migrate upwards?

A

Due to its light density, it may be able to move up through permeable or porous rocks

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18
Q

How is methane formed?

A

Created as a by-product during the formation of coal and crude oil

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19
Q

What is volcanic out-gassing?

A

Extreme heat from tectonic processes leads to sedimentary rock undergoing chemical changes, causing CO2 to be released into the atmosphere

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20
Q

Example of a place where out-gassing is common

A

Geothermal locations like New Zealand

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21
Q

What happens when acid rain hits carbon-rich rocks (e.g. limestone)?

A

It dissolves the material and forms calcium carbonate

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22
Q

What is the process of chemical weathering?

A
  • Slightly acidic rainwater forms from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere being dissolved in rainwater
  • Acidic rain hits carbon-rich rocks, dissolving them and forming calcium carbonate
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23
Q

How do primary producers make their energy?

A

From sunlight and carbon dioxide through photosythesis

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24
Q

What is the process of photosynthesis?

A

Green plants sequester carbon dioxide through chloroplasts in their leaves to produce energy

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25
Q

How do primary consumers return carbon to the atmosphere?

A

Respiration

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26
Q

What is the role of decomposers?

A

They consume dead organic matter and return the carbon to the atmosphere via respiration

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27
Q

How does photosynthesis occur in surface waters?

A
  • Phytoplankton take carbon out the atmosphere through photosynthesis
  • As phytoplankton sequester carbon, they build up their shells from calcium carbonate
  • These organisms are then consumed by other organisms who return carbon through respiration
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28
Q

How can atmospheric carbon be turned into biological carbon?

A

When ocean organisms use carbon to form their shells from calcium carbonate

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29
Q

What happens when carbonate shells sink?

A
  • Sink to ocean floor
  • They accumulate as sediment
  • Eventually transformed into sedimentary rock
  • SOME decomposed by bacteria which can return carbon
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30
Q

What is the carbonate pump?

A

When dead organisms die and fall to the ocean floor, forming sedimentary rock over time

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31
Q

What is thermohaline circulation?

A

Cold water sinks and warm water rises in the global movement of water

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32
Q

What carbon is found in soils?

A

Carbon from dead organic matter

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33
Q

How can biological carbon be returned to the atmosphere?

A

When dead organic matter is decomposed

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34
Q

What affects the rate of decomposition?

A
  • Temperature and climate
  • Human activity such as deforestation and land-use change
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35
Q

How much carbon do mangroves sequester a year?

A

1.5 metric tonnes per hectare

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36
Q

What are mangrove soils made up of?

A
  • Litter, humus and peat
  • These contain over 10% carbon
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37
Q

What is special about mangrove soil?

A

Due to being submerged beneath tidal water twice a day, it is anaerobic. This means decomposition takes a lot longer as decomposers cannot survive without oxygen.

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38
Q

Why does tundra soil contain ancient carbon?

A

As the soil is permanently frozen, no microbe activity can decay the material

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39
Q

What is the natural greenhouse effect?

A
  • Solar radiation enters the Earth’s atmosphere and passes through a layer of greenhouse gases
  • Radiation mostly absorbed by Earth’s surface but some is reflected
  • The greenhouse gas layer acts as a blanket, stopping reflected radiation from leaving the Earth’s atmosphere
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40
Q

What greenhouse gases contribute to the greenhouse effect?

A
  • Methane
  • Carbon dioxide
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41
Q

Why is the natural greenhouse effect good?

A

It allows Earth to be at a high enough temperature to support life

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42
Q

What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?

A

Human activity has caused an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to warmer temperatures

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43
Q

How does the greenhouse effect impact temperature distribution?

A

Different locations on Earth receive differing levels of solar energy. The angle of the sun’s rays concentrate on the Equator whilst at the poles it is dispersed over a greater distance

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44
Q

What is the albedo effect?

A

The colour of the surface of the Earth affects whether heat is absorbed or reflected: white snow reflects heat while dark oceans and forests absorb heat

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45
Q

How does the greenhouse effect impact precipitation distribution?

A

The intense solar radiation at the equator leads to warm air rising, causing high levels of rainfall all year

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46
Q

What happens in terms of pressure and precipitation at 30 degrees north and south?

A

High pressure and rainfall is rare

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47
Q

How much carbon do marine phytoplankton sequester each year?

A

5-15 Gt

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48
Q

How much carbon do terrestrial primary producers sequester each year?

A

100-120 Gt

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49
Q

Do oceans or rainforests sequester more carbon?

A

Rainforests

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50
Q

What is a consequence of Arctic sea ice melt?

A

Greater areas of ocean are exposed to sunlight for longer, causing algal bloom. Algae sequesters CO2 but alters marine ecosystems

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51
Q

What factors determine how much carbon is stored in soil?

A
  • Size of store in different biomes
  • Total input (plant litter, animal waste)
  • Total output (amount of decomposition, erosion and uptake by plant growth)
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52
Q

What are signs of healthy soil?

A
  • Dark in colour
  • Contain worms and other organisms
  • Have good infiltration rates
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53
Q

Why does plant CO2 intake decrease in winter?

A

Reduced hours of sunlight mean that less photosynthesis is occurring - Climate change could make winters shorter

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54
Q

Why is the natural carbon cycle in equilibrium?

A

There is a balance between stores and sinks

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55
Q

How has industrialisation interrupted the equilibrium of the carbon cycle?

A

The combustion of fossil fuels increased, leading to an increase in the concentration of atmospheric carbon

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56
Q

How will increased levels of atmospheric carbon change the climate in Europe?

A
  • Eastern and Northern Europe will expect to see warmer winters and increased precipitation
  • Southern Europe will expect to see warmer summers and decreased precipitation
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57
Q

What is the prerequisite for a tropical storm?

A

Sea surface temperatures at 27 degrees for 3 consecutive weeks

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58
Q

What South American nation has invested heavily in solar power?

A

Peru installed solar panels on 500,000 homes between 2006-15

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59
Q

Why are many rural areas in developing countries without power?

A
  • Lack of resources
  • Lack of finance to develop energy infrastructure
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60
Q

What percentage of the world’s energy is consumed in urban areas?

A

75%

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61
Q

In 2015, what percentage of UK energy was from renewables?

A

25%

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62
Q

Why is the UK energy insecure?

A

A decline in domestic natural gas and oil in the North Sea means that the country now relies on imported energy

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63
Q

What are primary energy sources?

A

Energy sources in their raw form, for example, fossil fuels

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64
Q

What are secondary energy sources?

A

Electricity

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65
Q

What technology advancement reduced energy consumption in the UK in the last 25 years?

A

Central home heating

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66
Q

What are renewable energy sources?

A

Energy sources that are natural continuous flows

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67
Q

Why does the UK import oil often instead of extracting it from the North Sea?

A

It is expensive to extract North Sea oil, so when oil prices are down, it can be cheaper to import instead

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68
Q

How many years worth of coal remains in the UK?

A

150 years

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69
Q

What was the UK’s aim for greenhouse gas emissions established in 2015?

A

Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030

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70
Q

When is Norway committed to being carbon-neutral by?

A

2050

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71
Q

What are Norway’s main sources of energy?

A
  • HEP
  • Oil and gas from the North Sea
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72
Q

Why is the UK limited in its ability to use gas for energy?

A

While the UK could extract shale gas through fracking, this is extremely unpopular

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73
Q

What is a consequence of the UK privatising its energy companies?

A

Suppliers include foreign companies (such as France’s EDF) who have influence over sources

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74
Q

Why is there so much unextracted UK coal?

A

Available technology is not good enough to extract it

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75
Q

Why does Norway use HEP energy?

A

The physical landscape is suitable with naturally steep valleys and high rainfall

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76
Q

What percentage of Norway’s renewable energy comes from HEP sources?

A

98%

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77
Q

How does Norway discourage the use of fossil fuels?

A

They tax it so it is more expensive than renewables as well as funding sustainable energy projects

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78
Q

Examples of energy players

A
  • OPEC
  • TNCs
  • Governments
  • Consumers
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79
Q

How do governments influence energy consumption?

A
  • Regulate private energy companies
  • Set environmental targets
  • Required to meet international agreements
80
Q

How can TNCs influence energy consumption?

A
  • Invest in and develop their own supply lines and distribution network
  • Respond to markets to ensure profits (adapting pricing)
81
Q

Examples of energy TNCs

A
  • BP (UK)
  • Shell (UK/Netherlands)
  • Petrobras (Brazil)
  • Reliance (India)
82
Q

How can consumers influence energy consumption?

A
  • Have some control over where their energy comes from (e.g. installing solar panels)
  • Their opinions influence policy (e.g. fracking protests)
  • They directly influence energy demand
83
Q

What is OPEC?

A

Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
81% of world oil reserves are found in OPEC nations

84
Q

What is the aim of OPEC?

A

Smaller oil-producing countries (e.g. UAE, Qatar), join together to create a group which dominates world oil production so they have greater influence over the oil market

85
Q

What two countries have the highest gas reserves?

A

Russia, Iran

86
Q

What two countries have the highest oil reserves?

A

Venezuela, Saudi Arabia

87
Q

What two countries have the highest coal reserves?

A

USA (237m tonnes)
Russia (157m tonnes)

88
Q

How have oil demands in China changed in recent years?

A

Doubled between 2000 and 2010

89
Q

What energy resources does China have?

A
  • 14th largest oil supply
  • 3rd largest coal supply
90
Q

When is China estimated to become the world’s largest energy importer?

A

2035

91
Q

What is an energy pathway?

A

The flow of an energy resource from the producer to the consumer

92
Q

What resources are transported through pipelines?

A

Natural gas and oil

93
Q

Name of the pipeline that transports gas from Russia to Germany

A

Yamal-Europe Pipeline

94
Q

How long is the ESPO oil pipeline and where does it go?

A

4,188km
Transports oil from Siberia to China, South Korea and Japan

95
Q

What are transmission lines?

A

High voltage lines that carry electricity from power points to wherever the energy is needed

96
Q

What is the name of the UK energy transmission system?

A

The National Grid

97
Q

What is a substation?

A

A station which takes a high voltage of energy and decreases it to the volume needed by customers

98
Q

What is a shipping chokepoint and how can these affect oil prices?

A

Shipping chokepoints: Narrow sea channels where transport can be easily disrupted

If these channels become blocked, as 50% of oil is transported by sea this can cause an increase in oil prices

99
Q

Example of a pipeline being damaged

A

Winter storms in 2013 damaged the importing UK gas pipeline and they were left with only 6h supply

100
Q

Where is an area prone to piracy attacks on oil ships?

A

Strait of Malacca

101
Q

What are some unconventional fossil fuel sources?

A
  • Tar sands
  • Deep water oil
  • Shale gas (fracking)
  • Biofuels
102
Q

How is bitumen extracted from tar sands?

A

High pressure steam is injected to separate the bitumen from the tar sands

103
Q

Economic cost of tar sands

A

Isn’t always economically worthwhile as extraction is expensive: ~$10 more than average barrel of oil

104
Q

How energy intensive is extracting tar sands?

A

Requires one barrel of oil to produce three

105
Q

How water intensive is extracting tar sands?

A

Requires 2-5 barrels of water for each barrel of oil

106
Q

What percentage of Canadian oil is exported to the US?

A

70%

107
Q

What percentage of North America is expected to get their energy from tar sands in 2030?

A

16%

108
Q

What rocks is shale gas trapped in?

A

Fractures and pores of sandstone and shale

109
Q

What country extracts deep water oil?

A

Brazil

110
Q

What are biofuels produced from?

A

Organic matter

111
Q

What is biomass?

A

The burning of plant material and animal waste for energy

112
Q

Three categories of biofuel

A
  • Bio-ethanol
  • Bio-diesel
  • Bio-methane
113
Q

What is bio-ethanol derived from?

A

Sugar cane, beet and maize

114
Q

What is bio-diesel derived from?

A

Animal fats and vegetable oils

115
Q

What is bio-methane derived from?

A

Waste and sewage

116
Q

How can the use of biofuels impact food supply?

A
  • Plants that would’ve otherwise been grown for food are instead grown for fuel
  • In areas where there is less food security there are questions as to whether biofuel is a productive use of food supply
117
Q

How are bio-fuels environmentally damaging?

A
  • Require mass deforestation for land
  • Fuel is needed to burn biomass
118
Q

How much more carbon is released from biofuels than coal?

A

Up to 150-400% more

119
Q

What is bio-ethanol used as primarily?

A

A mix with petrol in cars and vehicles

120
Q

How many people does the biofuel industry employ in Brazil?

A

1.34m

121
Q

How many vehicles are powered by bio-ethanol?

A

6 million

122
Q

What percentage of Brazil’s energy is produced from biofuels?

A

16%

123
Q

How has the biofuel industry casued tensions in Brazil?

A
  • Links to deforestation
  • Complaints that not enough food is being produced
124
Q

How does nuclear energy work?

A

Heat from atomic reactions is used to heat water and the steam produced powers turbines

125
Q

How expensive is solar energy?

A

£50-80 mW/h

126
Q

How expensive is wind energy?

A

Onshore: £80 mW/h
Offshore: £120 mW/h

127
Q

How expensive is hydroelectric power?

A

£100 mW/h

128
Q

How expensive is nuclear power?

A

£93 mW/h

129
Q

What are some issues with wind turbines?

A
  • Residents complain that they are visually unappealing
  • Potential harm to birds
  • Intermittent as depends on strength of winds
130
Q

What country temporarily closed all their nuclear power stations?

A

Japan - due to Tohoku earthquake

131
Q

What percentage of Japan’s energy previously came from nuclear?

A

27%

132
Q

What are some issues with solar energy?

A
  • Uses a vast area of land (could be used for farming instead)
  • Relatively expensive for consumers
  • Only productive in sunny countries
133
Q

What is the name of the new UK nuclear power plant?

A

Hinkley Point C - will provide 7% of the UK’s energy needs

134
Q

Where is the UK’s largest solar farm?

A

Shotwick

135
Q

How is the UK government encouraging energy companies to invest in renewables?

A

Subsidies

136
Q

Roughly how much of the UK’s energy comes from wind?

A

25%

137
Q

Examples of radical technologies to tackle carbon emissions

A
  • Electric vehicles
  • Carbon capture and storage (CSS)
  • Hydrogen fuel cells
138
Q

What are some issues with electric vehicles?

A
  • Limited distance between charges
  • Very expensive (at least £25,000)
  • Charging points not yet widespread in UK
139
Q

How does carbon capture and storage work (CSS)?

A
  • Carbon captured from power plants
  • Compressed and transported by pipeline
  • Injected in liquid form into underground reserves
140
Q

Where is carbon from CSS stored?

A

In underground reserves, such as depleted gas fields

141
Q

How much COULD CSS reduce carbon emissions?

A

Up to 19%

142
Q

How many CSS plants are operating in the world?

A

16

143
Q

How is hydrogen fuel created?

A

By separating hydrogen from other elements using electricity

144
Q

Is hydrogen fuel or oil more efficient in cars?

A

Hydrogen fuel

145
Q

What are some issues with hydrogen fuel cells?

A

Hydrogen does not occur naturally as a gas, it must be separated from other elements such as water. This is difficult under current scientific abilities.

146
Q

Why does deforestation occur?

A
  • Meet demands for timber
  • Clearing land for agriculture
147
Q

Why is demand for resources increasing?

A
  • Population growth
  • Increase in economic development
  • Climate change (e.g. increased water stress)
148
Q

How does deforestation affect the carbon cycle?

A
  • Reduction in photosynthesis
  • CO2 released during decomposition
149
Q

How does deforestation affect the water cycle?

A
  • Reduction in infiltration and interception
  • Increase surface run off and soil erosion
  • Reduced EVT = reduction in annual rainfall
150
Q

How does afforestation benefit the water cycle?

A

Promotes infiltration and percolation

151
Q

How has deforestation for palm oil had a negative impact on people?

A
  • Indigenous populations forced to relocate, affecting their traditional way of life
  • There were over 700 land conflicts in 2016 between palm oil companies and indigenous people
152
Q

What types of countries are seeing an increase in forested area?

A

HICs

153
Q

Evidence that deforestation may be slowing

A

Annual net loss of forests is half of what it was in the 1990s
(Down from 6.6m in the 90s to 3.3m in the 2010s)

154
Q

How has Indonesia aimed to reduce deforestation?

A
  • Declared a ‘forest moratorium’ in 2011 which halted permits to clear timber
  • Supported by UN ($1bn fund)
155
Q

Was Indonesia’s “forest moratorium” successful?

A

YES: Emissions had fallen by 2% by 2013
NO: Illegal logging remains a problem, as forest clearance only reduced 15%

156
Q

Shape of Kuznet’s curve

A

Normally distributed

157
Q

What does the Kuznet’s curve show in relation to environmental degredation?

A
  • As a country develops economically, environmental degradation increases
  • The country then hits a point where the environmental concern leads to action being taken
  • GDP continues to grow through new industries such as green energy
158
Q

How has Costa Rica limited environmental degredation?

A
  • Mass deforestation from the 50s to the 80s
  • Then invested heavily in eco-tourism to improve environment
159
Q

By how much did forest area in Madagascar decrease?

A

2/3 between 1950-85

160
Q

Causes of deforestation in Madagascar?

A
  • Energy
  • Trade of expensive tropical hardwood
161
Q

What is ocean acidification?

A

As more CO2 is absorbed into the ocean, the pH of the ocean decreases (more acidic)

162
Q

How does ocean acidification affect coral reefs?

A

Acidic water makes coral disintegrate

163
Q

How does rising sea temperatures affect coral reefs?

A
  • Coral reefs can only survive up to 29 degrees
  • Coral bleaching happens in warm waters, causing the algae to be ejected
164
Q

Importance of coral reefs

A
  • Provide shelter for 25% of marine species
  • Provide shoreline protection
  • Tourism
165
Q

How will increased temperatures affect evaporation?

A
  • Increased evaporation rates
  • This could result in tropical storms moving further from the equator
166
Q

How will increased temperatures affect a drainage basin?

A
  • In permafrost regions, increased thawing and increased surface run off
  • Precipitation more likely to fall as rainfall than snow = affects river regimes
167
Q

Why is ocean health important for humans?

A
  • Many countries rely on oceans for tourism (coral reefs)
  • Developing nations in particular rely on fish for food
168
Q

What percentage of mangroves have been lost since the 1950s?

A

50%

169
Q

How does drought cause forest loss?

A
  • Trees die and plant growth declines
  • Dried dead organic matter causes forest fires to spread easily
170
Q

When was the recent Amazon drought?

A

2014/15

171
Q

What percentage of the world’s terrestrial carbon is found in the Amazon?

A

17%

172
Q

Examples of natural positive feedback loops that cause uncertainty over climate change

A
  • Increased glacial melt = sea levels rise
  • Increased atmospheric carbon = oceans more acidic
173
Q

How do oceans become more acidic?

A

Sequestering carbon from the atmosphere

174
Q

What is peat?

A

Soil formed from vegetation which is partly decayed

175
Q

Why does peat contain high amounts of carbon?

A

Low decomposition

176
Q

What happens if peat dries out?

A
  • Water table drops
  • Decomposition rates increase
177
Q

What greenhouse gas does peat emit?

A

Methane

178
Q

Example of a UK wildfire

A

2018 Saddleworth Moor
Cause: Dry bushes were on peat, which is extremely flammable
Impacts: 40 homes evacuated

179
Q

Explain the positive feedback mechanism of permafrost and CO2 emissions

A
  • Permafrost thaws, releasing CO2 and methane
  • This enhances the greenhouse effect and temperatures increase
  • Increased temperatures cause more permafrost to thaw
180
Q

Consequence of melting northern glaciers

A

Large amount of less dense, non-salty water entering into oceans

181
Q

How do melting glaciers affect thermohaline circulation?

A
  • Disturbs conveyor belt of hot water moving from the tropics to the poles
  • This could cool temperatures in Northern Hemisphere
182
Q

What is forest dieback?

A
  • Drought causes large number of trees to die in rainforest
  • So much dead vegetation that no EVT so overall rainfall reduces
  • This causes further vegetation to die
183
Q

What are adaption strategies?

A

Adopting new methods to adapt to changing conditions

184
Q

3 land-use management adaption strategies

A
  • Land-use planning
  • Resilient agriculture
  • Water management
185
Q

How can land-use planning help to deal with climate change?

A
  • Zoning areas which are at increased risk from natural hazards
  • Promoting more resilient design
186
Q

How can water management help to deal with climate change?

A
  • Smart irrigation
  • Desalination
  • Reusing black water (sewage) for farming
187
Q

Which country has invested in water management?

A

Israel

188
Q

What is geo-engineering?

A

Adapting to climate change through altering the physical environment to protect humans from the effects of climate change

189
Q

How can buildings be made more flood-proof?

A
  • Raising floors
  • Using water-resistant material
190
Q

How could spraying seawater into the atmosphere reduce the impacts of climate change?

A

Could ultimately form clouds to reflect solar radiation and create precipitation

191
Q

Examples of geo-engineering techniques to adapt to climate change?

A
  • Flood proofing
  • Spraying seawater into the atmosphere
  • Spraying Sulphur into the stratosphere
  • Small disks that orbit Earth and reflect solar radiation
192
Q

Problem with geo-engineering techniques

A

Many are untested and require changing the atmosphere which could have unintended consequences

193
Q

How has Japan used land-use zoning?

A

There are 12 zone types. Each zone type has a limit on the number of floors allowed.

194
Q

Examples of mitigation strategies

A
  • Energy efficiency
  • Afforestation
  • Carbon taxation
  • Renewable switching
195
Q

How is energy efficiency promoted in the UK?

A

Grading electrical items with A-G based on their energy efficiency

196
Q

What was the 2016 fuel tax in the UK?

A

50%

Geography (8 decks)

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