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Geography > Water and Carbon Cycle > Flashcards

Water and Carbon Cycle Flashcards

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1
Q

Main characteristics of tropic rainforests

A

between two tropics

annual rainfall 2000+ mm; 27.C (ideal for plant growth and very efficient circulation of water)

home to 200mil + 1/2 worlds species

emit 28% worlds oxygen

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2
Q

Tropical Rainforest water cycle

A

precipitation very high bc high humidity & unstable weather conditions associated with tropics

forest intercepts 75% - some drips to ground from leaves/stemflow - 25% evaporates - 75% 1/2 used by plants and returned to atmosphere by evapotranspiration 1/2 infiltrates

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3
Q

desertification

A

turning marginal land into desert by destroying its biological potential

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4
Q

gauging station

A

site used to monitor and collect data about streams, river and other land-based bodies of water

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5
Q

groundwater flow

A

transfer of water very slowly through rocks

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6
Q

lithosere

A

vegetation succession that originates on bare rocky surface

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7
Q

lithosphere

A

outermost solid layer of Earth (100km thick) comprising the crust and upper mantle

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8
Q

percolation

A

Vertical movement of water down the soil into the underlying rock

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9
Q

psammosere

A

vegetation succession that originates in a coastal sand dune area

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10
Q

recharge

A

additional water flowing into rock

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11
Q

respiration

A

chemical processes that happens in all cells, which converts glucose into energy

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12
Q

river regime

A

pattern of discharge over the course of a year

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13
Q

sere

A

complete vegetation succession

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14
Q

sublimation

A

transfer from a solid state (ice) to gaseous state (water vapour) and vice versa

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15
Q

vegetation succession

A

sequence of changes that take place as plant life colonises bare rock, sand, water or salty areas

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16
Q

global hydrological cycle

A

continuous movement of water on, above and below earth

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17
Q

describe hydrosphere (saline water in oceans)

A

96.5% global water
supplies 90% of evaporated water which goes back into atmosphere

southern hem more water than north because it has more land

long-term: big fluctuations e.g. 18,000 years ago, SL up to 120m lower than present - 1/3 of world land area covered in glaciers/ice sheets
short-term: relatively small eustatic change to SL, but general trend SL rising

during interglacial, water added to store from cryosphere, means more water is available for hydrological cycle, speeds cycle up vice versa for ice age

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18
Q

describe hydrosphere (fresh surface water)

A

1.2% global freshwater

lakes & rivers not evenly distributed e.g. Great Lakes of North America, Caspian Sea

Long & short-term: level varies with climate (glacial / interglacial and varies seasonally)

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19
Q

describe cryosphere (ice)

A

68.7% global freshwater
covers 10% earth’s surface
95% in Antarctica & Greenland

ice help in many forms: ice caps/sheets (covers 20,000 square miles of land e.g. Antarctica, Iceland, Greenland, glaciers (covers less than 20,000 square miles), ice shelves, sea ice (can freeze & thaw yearly e.g. Arctic)

long-term: variations with glacial + interglacial periods
short-term: seasonal variations, accumulation (build up ice mass), ablation (loss ice mass), calving (in winter glaciers accumulate less and summer ablate more)

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20
Q

describe lithosphere (rock and soil)

A

groundwater 30.1% global freshwater

soil moisture storage varies e.g. sand porous + permeable so transfers water through it storing little - clay porous but impermeable so stores
groundwater aquifers: rock that store water e.g. Chalk, sandstone create vast reservoirs

long-term: depend on location (historical plate movement) + changes in climate
short-term: depends on season + climate change

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21
Q

describe atmosphere

A

0.001% global water
90% water input by evaporation + 10% transpiration

spatially amount of water in atmosphere determined by tri-cellular model

long-term: varies with availability of water + temperature (ice ages)
short-term: seasonal variations, global warming, extreme events

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22
Q

describe biosphere

A

0.26% surface water

distribution over space and time varies by biome + season

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23
Q

Drip/ stem flow

A

Water drips off leaves and branches until it reaches ground

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24
Q

Transpiration

A

Plants loose water back to atmosphere through stomata on leaves

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25
Q

Surface storage

A

Water stored in depressions on the surface e.g. puddles, ponds, lakes

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26
Q

Throughflow

A

Lateral movement of soil water downslope

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27
Q

Soil moisture storage

A

Water stored in pore spaces in the soil

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28
Q

Groundwater storage

A

Water held in pore spaces in the rock

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29
Q

Groundwater flow

A

Very slow lateral movement of water through rock

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30
Q

Water table

A

Upper layer of saturated ground

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31
Q

Examples of drainage basins

A

Mississipi largest US drainage basin
2.981 million km²

Amazon basis largest in world: 7 million km²

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32
Q

Equation for water balance

A

P = Q + E +/- S

P (precipitation)
Q (discharge runoff (amount of water flowing into channel))
E (evapotranspiration)
S (storage)

Helps hydrologists plan fr future water supply and flood control by understanding unique hydrological characteristics of individual water basin

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33
Q

Factors causing variations in stores of the drainage basin:

A

Deforestation (removal of trees reduces interception + infiltration - overland flow increases)

Storms (intense rainfall increases about of rain reaching ground + increases magnitude of stores)

Seasonal changes (winer snowfall + frozen ground interrupt water transfers + affect magnitude of stores)

Urbanisation (impermeable surfaces reduce infiltration - trees cut - water flow quickly through pipes to nearby river channels)

Farming (ditches drain land + encourage water flow quickly to rivers- irrigation increases amount of water on ground)

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34
Q

Variations in runoff

A

Lack of trees, 90% runoff, 10% evapotranspiration + storage, saturated soil, impermeable rock

Trees, 50% evapotransiration + storage, lake (storage), 50% runoff, dry soil, permeable rock

Time of year affect rates of evapotranspiration + veg growth (interception)
Type + intensity of precipitation

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35
Q

The river Wye, Wales

A

Upper basin: steep slopes, acidic soils, grassland - area originally forested but cleared for pasture + grazing reducing interception + increase potential for overland flow - ditches dug to drain land to make it more productive this increases speed of water transfer making prone to floods

Rocks upper basin impermeable must ones, shales + grits making groundwater flow limited: soils quickly saturated + unable to absorb excess water encouraging overland flow increasing risk of flooding downstream

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36
Q

Value for river discharge in cumecs

A

Discharge (m³ per second) = cross-sectiona area (m²) x. Velocity (metres per second)

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37
Q

Characteristics of flashy hydrograph

A

Impermeable rocks encourage rapid overland flow (clay)
Saturated antecedent conditions
Steep slopes raid water transfer
High drainage density speed up water transfer
Small drainage basin - rapid transfer
Drainage basin- steep sides and small
Urbanisation - tarmac
Heavy rain may exceed infiltration capacity of veg + rapid overland flow
Deforested
Yes agriculture increase runoff rate up and down ploughing

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38
Q

Characteristics of a subdued hydrograph

A

Permeable rocks encourage slow transfer by ground-water flow (sand)
Unsaturated antecedent conditions
Gentle slopes slow water transfer
Low drainage density
Large drainage basin
Gentle sides flat
Interception
Light rain transfer slowly
Forested
No agriculture contour ploughing

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39
Q

Purpose of flood hydrograph

A

Track progress of storm in drainage basin
By looking at previous flood hydrographs it’s possible to access likelihood of flood or dangerous events like high flow rates
To prepare, raise flood barriers or declare rivers unsafe to users

40
Q

consequences of over-abstraction

A

ground less stable - causing subsiding & cracking cause damaged infrastructure
wells & boreholes cause health hazards - substances mix with fresh water

41
Q

over-abstraction: saltwater intrusion

A

fresh groundwater system come into contact with oceans (saltwater) -> make water unpotable + freshwater less dense so flows on top underlying saline groundwater

when water pumped from aquifer near saltwater / freshwater boundary will move in response to pumping so contaminate water supply

42
Q

over-abstraction: impacts on stores of water

A

lowering lake levels by groundwater pumping affect ecosystems supports by lake, diminish lakefront aesthetics + -tive effects on shoreline structures

43
Q

over-abstraction: impacts on flows of water

A

over-abstraction from aquifers impact quantity & flow of water in river

long-term reductions in streamflow affect vegetation that serves roles in maintaining wildlife habitat + enhancing quality of water supply

pumping-induced changes in flow direction affect temperature, oxygen levels, nutrient concentrations

44
Q

over-abstraction: subsidence

A

damage structures + create problems in operation of facilities for drainage, flood protection

human activities cause land subsidence by compaction of aquifer systems

cannot be reversed - result in permanent reduction in storage capacity of aquifer system impacting overall flow + store of water

45
Q

over-abstraction: Colorado

A

major river N America
flows through 7 states
area 250,000 square miles

river basin arid, extreme climatic diversity from alpine to desert

provide water to 40 mil for municipal use, irrigation and lifeblood for 22 federally recognised tribes

Hoover Dam: 1930 highest in US - built for flood control & irrigation

running dry, rarely reaches ocean in Gulf of California, one of most endangered rivers in US

46
Q

human changes to water cycle: irrigation

A

drip: efficient, directs water to roots with little output via evaporation
spray: require more water, less efficient, cheaper

mismanagement: over-abstraction cause salinisation, salt get into groundwater stores

eutrophication

47
Q

human changes to water cycle: drainage

A

drains poorly drained clay soils
increase productivity
warmer soils aid germination
air in soil increase biotic activity + breakdown organic matter

expensive
increase speed of through flow
nitrate loss through water lead to eutrophication
dry top soil susceptible to wind erosion

48
Q

human changes to water cycle: ploughing

A

vertical & contour

49
Q

River Exe - Devon

A

only 13% woodland
80% agriculture
4.5% urban
geology: 93.5% moderate/low permeability TMT less percolation, soils fill up quickly leading to increased runoff

50
Q

River Exe - Mires Project

A

act to reduce climate change
peat drying & oxidising causing CO2 because drainage ditches
want to rewet peatland so absorb CO2
helps flood risk + increase water quality + increase habitats
block ditches so speed water reduced

51
Q

River Exe - human activity

A

drainage ditches - encouraged for cattle use

Wimbleball Reservoir - slows water + provides supply

agriculture - cattle compact soil can’t hold much water decrease infiltration capacity

peatland restoration

52
Q

River Exe - River Culm

A

longest tributary of Exe
catchment predominantly rural, comprising mixed woodland, agriculture

water quality failed to reach good chemical status because pollutants from agricultural

river regime responds quickly to winter rain

flashy: geology - impermeable clay promote rapid runoff
flashy: soils - sandy soils - permeable
flashy: land use 87% agricultural (soil compaction),
flashy: urbanisation - 2017 gov announced ‘Garden Villages’ provide 5,000 new homes, shops, employment, schools, increase runoff (concrete, tarmac) - removal of veg

53
Q

River Exe - River Culm - Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)

A

reduce runoff from urban like Culm Garden Village
infiltration + water storage encouraged
runoff reduced: infiltration basins, detention pool, soakaways, green roofs, wetlands

54
Q

impact of human activity & environmental change

A

1/2 world RF wiped for commercial farming, mining, loggings, settlements
atmo less humid as evapotranspiration reduced
rain reaches ground immediately, compacting it - overland flow
exposed to sun, dry soil, vulnerable to erosion (desertification)
rates of runoff increase with increased risk of flooding

55
Q

Africa’s Great Green Wall - Afforestation

A

Acacia trees thrive semi-arid
spans across 11 countries (Sahel)
8,000km long
Senegal most progress
began 2007
cost $8 billion

56
Q

Africa’s Great Green Wall - Afforestation - benefits

A

more jobs - more eco stable
absorbs C & emits O2 (global scale)
provides shade so other plants grow to eat/sell
wells fill up (kids go to school don’t travel for water)
roots hold water & soil so nutrients kept for future plant growth
cheap & easy for locals to be involved

57
Q

global stores of carbon

A

lithosphere (organic matter in soil (pedosphere), inorganic carbon in fossil fuels & sedimentary rocks)

hydrosphere (dissolved atmo CO2, weathered from rocks into rivers, calcium carbonate from shells)

cryosphere (CO2 stored in ice + peatbogs within permafrost regions)

atmosphere (gas CO2)

biosphere (living matter)

58
Q

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - photosynthesis

A

CO2 taken in from atmo - reacts with chlorophyll produce glucose
CO2 + H2O -> C6H12O6 + O2
carbon dioxide + water + sunlight -> glucose + oxygen

equator lots photo - N Africa little photo + 2 poles

EU summer photo more often in N hem and during EU winter photo most often S hem

59
Q

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - respiration

A

O2 + C6H12O6 -> energy + H2O + CO2

occurs in urban areas + farming - little in poles

60
Q

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - decomposition

A

decomposers (detritovores) consume dead organic matter
CO2 released during process + organic material transfer into soil

where lot of life (RF) specifically RF floor

more in summer

61
Q

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - weathering

A

breakdown of rocks in situ
CO2 dissolves in rain forming weak carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3
acid dissolves rock on earth surface (chemical weathering)
carried by water, underground + by rivers to sea + settles as calcium carbonate

62
Q

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - combustion

A

forest ecosystems usually balance absorb & release
3-4million km2 forest burnt each year release more than GTc per year

spatial: forest areas, hot, dry
temporal: local summer

63
Q

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - burial & compaction (biological pump)

A

CO2 in phytoplankton
when die, sink deep & decay - form layers C rich sediment
over million years organic sediments buried + compacted form carbonate rocks e.g. limestone + hydrocarbon e.g. coal, oil, gas

64
Q

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - organic carbon pump

A

2 way transfer between ocean & atmo
inverse relationship between water temp + ability to dissolve - water temp increase ability to dissolve CO2 decrease

65
Q

carbon budget

A

uses data describe amount of C stored & transferred on C cycle

measured in petagrams (Pg)

66
Q

carbon and land

A

carbon cycle responsible formation & development of soil - C in form of organic matter introduces nutrients + provides structure to soil

67
Q

carbon and ocean

A

C converted to calcium carbonate used by marine organisms to build shells
C cycle impact presence & proliferation of phytoplankton - consumes CO2 - C passed along food chain

68
Q

carbon cycle significant regional impacts on climate

A

vegetation - impacts global climates by removing CO2 + releasing water + O2 - regions with dense veg (RF) high rates of photo & respirational, increase humidity + cloud cover, affect regional temps and rain

regions experiencing deforestation drier + less humid - fewer trees less photo

proliferation of plankton promote formation of clouds through chemical substance DMS

volcanic eruptions release CO2 into atmo + ash + other gases - absorb more radiation lead to cooling effect (volcanic winter)

69
Q

role of water and carbon in supporting human life

A

C one of 6 crucial elements in humans - 18% human body - stored form of glucose, assist cellular respiration

trees: C 50% biomass
atmo store water + C - all organisms need water - C in atmo essential for photo create carbohydrates needed plant growth + provide sufficient atmo warm

70
Q

relationship between water cycle and carbon cycle

A

ability of water to absorb & transfer CO2 e.g. CO2 soluble in water

absorbtion of C in rain - pure water pH 7.0 - unpolluted rain mildly acidic pH5.6 - acidic rainwater affects weathering - dissolved C carried by river to ocean for shell growth + buried form new limestone deposits + some back to atmo

71
Q

water cycle feedback loop

A

ice reflects radiation from Sun less heat absorbed

Arctic ice shrinking exposing more water - warmer water + further melts

local & regional impact: precipitation patterns & availability of fresh water

political & eco implications: no Arctic ice affect trading routes, exploitation of resources

72
Q

carbon cycle feedback loop

A

higher temp increase growing season increase absorption of C

high temp melt permafrost - organic matter trap in frozen ground act C store - estimated more C trapped in permafrost than atmo - on melting, organic matter decompose

Arctic act net carbon store - if scale permafrost melting increase balance tip so Arctic become net C source (-tive feedback)

73
Q

water cycle/carbon cycle feedback loop

A

phytoplankton & terrestrial plants use sun energy + CO2 (dissolved in water) to photo

phytoplankton release DMS promote formation of clouds (condensation) over oceans - increase in photo associated with warmer temps + more sun lead to increase cloud & global cooling bc clouds decrease solar radiation BUT less sun lead to decrease phytoplankton thereby decreasing cooling effect

74
Q

mitigating impacts of climate change: carbon capture and storage

A

tech capture CO2 emission - gas transported to site where it’s stored - could cut C emissions by 19% - once captured gas compressed &transported by pipeline to injection well, injected as liquid into geological reservoirs

75
Q

mitigating impacts of climate change: modifying photosynthesis

A

trees C sinks, remove CO2
trees release moisture into atmosphere + help moderate climate

plantation forests effective in absorbing CO2 compared to natural forests - recognised by IPCC as legit option for countries wishing to reduce C emissions

76
Q

mitigating impacts of climate change: modifying deforestation

A

consumers encouraged buy wood certified by Forestry Stewardship Council (timber grown sustainably)

countries/organisations make C offset payments to offset their C emissions

Malaysia: Selective Management System sustainable approach to logging by felling selected trees + planting replacements

77
Q

mitigating impacts of climate change: government policies in Brazil

A

landowners required preserve 80% virgin forest
government created protected reserves in Amazon along frontier areas where deforestation started
decrease deforestation by 70% which decrease C emissions more than any other country

78
Q

mitigating impacts of climate change: political initiatives (Paris Agreement)

A

195 countries adopted first universal legally binding global climate deal

aim limit average global temp increase to 1.5.C

meet every 5 years to set more ambitious targets

79
Q

human causes to changes in C cycle: combustion of fossil fuels

A

C locked up in deposits, when burnt to generate energy stored C released

since Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels burnt increasing quantities, pumping CO2 into atmo - enhances greenhouse effect, increase global temp

80
Q

human causes to changes in C cycle: land-use change

A

responsible for 10% C release globally

farming practices: ploughing & harvesting, rearing, machinery & fertilisers release C - methane emitted as livestock regurgitate food + masticate 2nd time (cattle USA emit 5.5 mil tonnes of methane per year) - methane cultivation of rice (rice primary food source for 50% world’s pop)

81
Q

human causes to changes in C cycle: urbanisation

A

globally urban areas occupy 2% total land area

major source of emissions transport, development of industry, conversion of land use from natural to urban + cement production

cement used in construction - CO2 by-product of chemical conversion process - contributes 2.4% global C emissions

82
Q

atmospheric carbon - impacts of greenhouse effect

A

temp distribution - diff locations receive diff levels solar energy - angle sun’s rays result equator receiving most concentration radiation, whilst Poles same radiation dispersed over greater distance

albedo effect - white snow/glaciers/ice caps reflect hear - dark oceans/forests absorb heat

precipitation distribution - heating surface warm air rises cools condenses forming clouds - intense solar radiation at equator leads to warm air rising causing high levels rainfall - at 30.N/S air cools & sinks high pressure rain rare - at 60.N/S diff air masses meet resulting in frontal rain - Poles cold air sinks little rain

83
Q

effects on changing carbon budget impact on land

A

increase temps increase growing seasons absorbing CO2

carbon fertilisation - more CO2 more photo and plant growth

tundra regions thaw permafrost leads to more rapid decomposition and release of CH4

global warming lead to dry conditions, increase forest fires, release CO2 - management lead to more fires extinguished - leads to build up woody material (C store) but make future fires worse

84
Q

effects of changing carbon budget impact on oceans

A

ocean acidification - CO2 diffuses into ocean create carbonic acid react with carbonate ions form bicarbonate TMT less carbonate ions for coral and planktonic species to build shells

coral reefs- 500mil dependent for food & livelihoods - natural sea defence

warmer oceans hold less CO2 - decrease phytoplankton - reduce bio carbon pump - CO2 essential for plant and phytoplankton growth - bleaches coral

melting sea ice & sea level rise

85
Q

natural factors changing carbon cycle

A
  1. Milankovitch cycles
  2. volcanic activity (emit 130-380mil tonnes CO2 per year) (super volcanic eruption could cause massive flux on C in atmo e.g. Yellow Stone)
  3. Wild Fires (turn forest from sink to source - 3-4mil km2 burnt each year releasing more than GTc per year)
86
Q

tropical RF & carbon cycle

A

warm & wet climate ideal for growth - promote photo + absorb huge quantities of CO2

decomposition active process - bacteria & fungi thrive warm & wet - release CO2

C stored soil or dissolved removed by stream

87
Q

impact of deforestation on CC - Indonesia

A

1960s: 80% RF but rapid development decimated forest

more than mil hectares cleared each year with 30% in C-rich peatland forests - once exposed peatlands easily eroded by wind/rain - no longer sink but source

prevalence of fires - send black smoke into atmo releasing huge quantities of C stored

world’s 3rd largest emitter of greenhouse gases - 85% emissions derived from RF + peatland degredation

88
Q

Indonesia - background knowledge

A

over 13,466 islands - hard to police
267 million

3rd largest rainforest after Amazon and Congo
3rd largest emitter Greenhouse Gases after China and USA

89
Q

Indonesia - deforestation

A

demand for toilet paper, biofuels, vegetable oil, mining, logging

increased risk drought, flooding, fires

rate of deforestation: 1900 89% cover, 1960 80% cover, 2000 53%, now under 1/2 original cover remains - nearly mil hectares cut each year

people turn to illegal logging because poor education so not good job opportunities - support family - follow father

90
Q

Indonesia - monoculture

A

cloned acacia trees slows C cycle

photo occurs but operates at less effective levels - animals can’t survive in this envi

91
Q

Indonesia - peat

A

peat soil layer 10m deep

when decomposed it releases C

92
Q

Indonesia - water table

A

decreasing because of deforestation and over pumping of groundwater

93
Q

Indonesia - fires

A

bad in 1997-1998 because El Nino (dry season brought drought + sparked fires) - low law enforcement - coincided with economical and political upheaval, downfall of President - ordered clearance of 1 million hectares of peatland to grow rice

bad in 2015: 2.6 mil hectares of forest destroyed - cost $16bil - smoke engulfed neighbouring countries so air quality exceeded max level of 1000 on national pollutant index (more than 3x amount considered hazardous) - visibility less than 5m, embers jumped across rivers

94
Q

Indonesia - protecting forest

A

Peat Restoration Agency - role rewet most vulnerable peatland - cover more than 2mil hectares

Katingan Mentaya Project: aims protect & restore peatland forest - 157,000 hectares, provide sustainable livelihood, make profit for companies, move C, better education

multinationals: VW & Shell rewarded with carbon credit payments in return for saving forest - helps VW & Shell achieve own climate goals

One Map Policy

95
Q

Indonesia - protecting forest - One Map Policy

A

helps resolve overlapping claims - put accurate info on land concessions to reduce chances of dispute over issue of permits for forest conservation, plantation, mining - help resolve problem illegal plantations - not successful largely closed off from public so instead offering more clarity created more confusion - no clear direction from govm or coordination ministry who need to resolve overlapping and conflict - lack of transparency: govm not released concession maps so diff to understand root of problem which is urget because of growing effects of climate change

Geography (5 decks)

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