VNSA4 Flashcards
What is welfare ?
The physical and mental state of an animal in relation to the conditions in which it lives and dies
how can you measure welfare by physiological factors?
- heart rate and rhythm
- pulse rate and rhythm
- respiratory rate and rhythm
- blood pressure rate
What is stress?
- A survival adaption
- Increases the amount of oxygen and glucose to the vital organs and muscles
- Fight and flight response
What signs may you see if an animal is suffering from stress?
Internal factors:
-tachycardia
-tachypnoea
-hyperthermia
Hypertension
Physiological factors:
-ears back
-teeth showing
-body posture tense and weight forward or back
-growling/hissing
-dilated pupils and showing the white
What is preference testing? And what problems may it cause ?
- a number of options are offered to an animal and they select their preferred option.
Problems:
-you may get different preferences with different measures
-effects of experience, may prefer what is familiar
-handler bias
What problems come with behavioural observation?
- straightforward for overt behaviours like aggression
-more difficult to validate for more subtle measures
Animal Welfare Act 2006
What are the 5 freedoms ?
- Freedom from hunger and thirst
- Freedom from discomfort
- Freedom from pain injury or disease
- Freedom to express normal behaviour
- Freedom from fear and distress.
DEFRA
Department for environment, food and rural affairs
What is involved within this legislation?
-transporting animals
-microchipping
-report notifiable diseases
-farm welfare
-produce welfare codes of practice
APHA
Animal and plant health agency
What is involved within this legislation?
Safeguard animal and plant health for the benefit of people, the environment and the economy.
Identifying and controlling endemic and exotic diseases and pests in animals, plants and bees.
Surveillance of new and emerging pests and diseases.
What is involved within the pet travel scheme?
Allowing owners to take their dogs, cats and ferrets to counties within the EU.
Stages needed to follow the scheme:
-has been microchipped
-has a pet passport or pet health certificate
-has been vaccinated against rabies
-specific counties require a tapeworm tablet
The Animal health certificate must be done within 10 days of travel
Rabies vac must be done within 21 days of travel.
How does PETS maintain animal welfare
-prevents spread of diseases
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1966
Regulates members of the veterinary profession.
Contributes to animal welfare by ensuring only a qualified member of staff can practice.
How does the RSPCA protect welfare
Royal Society for the protection of cruelty to animals
- pushes for changes in the law to improve the welfare of animals
-through investigations and prosecutions they rescue animals who suffered deliberate harm.
-rescue, rehabilitate, rehome or release
How does the RSPB protect animal welfare?
-Protect habitats, save species and help to end the nature and climate emergency.
-carry out conservation work
-5 main work areas are:
1. Science
2.species
3.places
4.people
5.policy
Introducing new animal stock.
- Method
- Quarantine
3.minimising stress
4.individual
5.Group dynamics
6.timing
Name equipment used for handling
-basket
-collar
-lead
-crush cage
-bag
-nets
-dog catcher
-snake hook
-grasper
-gauntlets
-muzzles
-harness
-noose
-tape muzzle
-towels
-goads
-gloves
-goggles
-apron
-hood, wild birds
-holding pen
When looking at an animal how can you read body language ?
Body - tense, relaxed, arched back
Tail - wagging, upright, between legs, straight out
Ears - relaxed, pricked, flat
Eyes - pupils dilated, avoiding eye contact, squinting, wide eyed
Vocalisation - barking, growling, purring, hissing
Body language of a dog
Friendly; relaxed body posture, wagging tail, weight distributed.
Pain; tense, tail down, whimpering, grumpy, lameness
Anxious; standing, head and body posture kept low, tail tucked, ears back
Aggressive; stiffened body posture, weight forward, ears up, teeth exposed
Depressed; hunched, no interest in surroundings
Body language of a cat
Friendly; relaxed body, ears in natural position, tail held out loosely, body stretched
Pain; let her gain, hiding, pupils dilated
Anxious; hidden away, tense, tail tucked, ears sideways, pupils dilated
Aggressive; arched posture, hair raised, tense, paw ready to swipe, hissing, pupils dilated, mouth open
Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings
Body language of a rabbit
Friendly; lying down, extended out, relaxed body, jumping around
Pain; teeth grinding, doesn’t want to be touched, not eating
Anxious; hiding, crouched, tense, ears wide apart, eyes
Aggressive; tense, raised tail, mouth open, visible teeth, pupils dilated
Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings
Body language of a rodent
Friendly; relaxed body
Pain; may hide away, may be aggressive
Anxious; hide away, may vocalise
Aggressive; vocalising, forward behaviour, defensive behaviour
Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings
Body language in birds
Friendly; relaxed, wings not tense, engaged with environment
Pain; hides it well, protect themselves
Anxious; may be quiet or may vocalise, overstimulated by surroundings
Aggressive; dependant on species - vocalising, change in plumage, head bobbing
Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings
Body language in exotics
Friendly; relaxed
Pain; not obvious
Anxious; not obvious (similar to aggression)
Aggression; colour changes, head bobbing or shaking, tail whip, flat body, S bend in snakes, hissing in chelonians
Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings
Signs of stress in a dog
-yawning
-aggression
-shaking/trembling
-panting
-sweaty paws
-dilated pupils
-excessive barking
-drooling
-hiding
-licking/scratching
Signs of stress in a cat
-aggression
-hiding
-dilated pupils
-sweaty paws
-open mouth breathing.
-anorexia
-over eating
-over grooming
-under grooming
-house soiling
-urine marking
-vocalisation
-appearing withdrawn
-running away
Restraining dogs
-collar or harness and lead
-halti
-slip lead
-muzzle
-Mikki or tape
-wrapped towel
-rolled towel (brachycephalics)
-dog catcher
Restraining cats
-muzzle
-towel
-gauntlets
-cat grasper
-cat bag
-don’t scruff unless necessary
Restraining rabbits
Most are docile
A struggling rabbit may lash out with its hind legs and fracture or dislocate its spine
Severe stress can induce cardiac arrest
Transport by holding them close to your chest
Do not trance
Restraining rodents
- scruffing may be appropriate
-cup in hand
-may use towels if larger
(Rats - encircle the pectoral girdle behind the forelimbs, support their weight with the other hand)
(Mice - grasp the tail near to the base and place on a non slip surface. With the other hand the mouse can be grasped at the scruff between the thumb and the forefingers allowing the mouse to be turned. Never grab the tip of the tail)
Restraining guinea pigs
Minimal noises and dim lighting to catch them
Grasp behind the front limbs from the dorsal aspect, support their weight with the other hand.
Restraining chinchillas and degus
Easily stressed
restrict noise and dim the lights to catch them
Grasp behind the front limbs form the dorsal aspect, support their weight with the other hand.
Do not scruff chinchillas (results in fur loss)
Restraining ferrets
Grasp from the dorsal aspect, just behind the front legs, using the thumb and forefinger.
For livelier individuals, place the thumb under the chin, pushing the jaw upwards and the rest of the fingers grasping the other side of the neck, support the rear limbs with the other hand.
For aggressive ferrets a firm hold of the scruff may be necessary
Restraining birds
Use a quiet darkened room
Remove all toys and perches
Pick up gently and hold wings into the body
Don’t restrict respiration
Use towels to match the size of the bird
Birds of prey can use a hood.
Restraining Reptiles
Snakes - pick up gently from the widest part and support them. Use the hook if needed. If over 2.5m two people must hold.
Lizards - picked up around the pectoral girdle.
Terrapins - carry salmonella so basic hygiene required. Bite hard.
Tortoises - friendly, don’t trap finger between leg and shell
Define aggression
Aggression is defined as threats or harmful actions directed toward another individual and can include threat displays.
Lunging, growling, snarling and biting.
In animals aggression is a form of communication.
Ladder of aggression for dogs
- Yawning, blinking, nose licking
- Turning head away
- Turning body away, sitting, pawing
- Walking away
- Creeping ears back
- standing crouched, tail tucked under
- Lying down, leg up
- Stiffening up, staring
- Growling
- Snapping
- biting
When moving a patient in practice or giving a client advice on travel it is important to consider:
-size of the animal
-nature of injury
-number of staff available
-behaviour of the patient
-the environment
-methods of restraint
Travelling by air
Most airlines dont allow animals to travel with their owners in the cabin, instead they travel in a heated and pressurised area of the hold.
The International Air Transport Association Standards require their container to be large enough to stand up in and turn around with ease and have strict regulations.
Clients should be advised to contact DEFRA for info regarding entry requirements to their destination.
Travelling can be an issue for reptiles due to their inability to regulate body temp. Expert Reptile shipping experts should be used.
Feeding inpatients
Consider:
-species
-breed
-life stage
-health status
Fresh water should be freely available.
Health, hygiene and safety considerations
-PPE and hand washing
-access to patients (limited to authorised personnel)
-security
-emergency procedures
-evacuation procedures
-strict hygiene essential
-using appropriate cleaning agents
-pests not able access area
-waste disposal in accordance to local authorities
-waste carrier licensed with environmental agency
Heating in the practice
-proving warmth and comfort
-removing damp and condensation
-reduces the risk of respiratory infection
Types - central heating, electric fan heater, air on, underfloor heating, portable radiators
Lighting in the practice/within kennels
Should be as natural as poss
Mimic their natural environment as closely as poss
Ventilation in the practice
Reduces damp, noxious gases and droughts
Reduces incidence of respiratory disease
Minimum changes of air per hour is 4-8
Structure of the kennels
-solid
-cleaned and disinfected
-secure and escape proof
-appropriate to species and condition
Size of kennels
Adequate size to allow animals to:
-feed
-sleep sit and stand
-lie with limbs extended
-stretch and move around
-use a litter tray
The RCVS states that inpatient facilities should be :
-suitable size
-securable
-sturdy
-escape proof
-without potential injurious faults
-easily cleanable
What are the benefits of grooming ?
-helps them if they cant do it themselves
-bonding and can help get the animal used to being touched
-checks animals over (may find lumps, painful areas or parasites)
Types of coats
Double coat - long topcoat and thick undercoat (eg, GSD)
Smooth coat - short, thin coat (eg, Dalmatian/boxer)
Wire coat - harsh topcoat and thick undercoat (eg, border terrier)
Wool coat (eg, poodle)
Silky coat - fine textured topcoat (eg, afghan hound)
Types of brushes
Bristle brush - remove loose hair and dander, stimulate the skin (use on short coated and silky coats)
Pin brush - separates the top and undercoat, removes matts and tangles ( use on double coated breeds and long haired cats)
Comb - loosening matted hair, parasites (long haired animals)
Zoom groom - massage skin, stimulating capillaries (use on dogs and cats)
Slicker brush - go through coat and avoids skin (use on any animal)
Rake/furminator - remove undercoat and loose hair without damaging top coat (breeds and species that shed)
Vaccinations
An attenuated version of the antigen is administered, inducing an immune response, meaning that it is then recognised if exposed again and mounts a rapid immune response.
What is a passive vaccination?
Containing antibodies to a specific toxin
-antitoxins
-antiserum
-maternally derived antibodies
What is an active vaccination?
Stimulates the immune system to specific pathogens, inducing an immunological ‘memory’
-live vaccine
-inactive due or killed
-adjuvants
-live vaccines are usually more affective
Canine vaccination
Protection against - distemper, hepatitis, parvovirus, leptospirosis and para influenza.
1st vacc - recommend to start at 8wks
Puppies can be given from 6wks if required
2nd vacc - same vac given 3-4 wks after and be at least 9wks of age.
Kennel cough is recommended to be given too.
Booster vaccination every year.
(Full vac - VersicanDHppi/L4 repeated every 3 years)
(For years in between a part vaccination VersicanPi/L4 to be given)
Feline vaccination
Protect against - feline enteritis, rhinotracheitis and calicivirus. A separate vaccination is given for feline leukaemia is given at the same time.
Feline leukaemia is given on a 3 yearly basis in most cases - some owners wish not to have it.
1st vacc - given from 9wks of age (versifel CVR and FeLV used)
2nd vacc - Versifel CVR and FeLV used again 3-4 weeks after the first.
Onset of immunity is 3 weeks from the 2nd vac.
Yearly booster - use Versifel CVR and FeLV is given every 3 years provided they’ve had their primary jab.
Rabbit vaccine
Protected against - myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease
From 5 weeks old
2 course vacc
Booster yearly
Parasite control
Must be:
-regular
-species appropriate
-life stage appropriate
-health status appropriate
-include endoparasite and ectoparasite treatment
-route of administration
Rabbit dental hygiene
Their teeth continually grow.
Their natural high fibre diet will grind these down, and the correct calcium:phosphorous ratio of the diet will ensure that they are of appropriate strength.
When not fed on this diet issues can occur and they overgrow, developing spikes that push into the tongue or cheeks causing pain.
Normal appearance of eyes
-Bilaterally symmetrical (size and position)
-Discharge free
-pupils constrict in presence of bright light
-third eyelid is usually not visible
Checking ears
-examine for scratches, wounds and swellings
-examine vertical canal for inflammation, wax, purulent discharge, foreign bodies and parasites
-view tympanic membrane to check intact
Checks for oral cavity
-Check: tongue, teeth and palate
-can the jaw be opened without pain?
-look for misalignment
Where can you assess mucous membranes ?
Mouth, eyes, genitalia, anal region
Normal is salmon pink
Capillary refill time (CRT)
CRT in 2 secs
Prolonged CRT - poor perfusion, dehydration or shock
Fast CRT - sepsis or fever
Appearance of external nares
Normal - moist, no discharge, patent air flow through both nostrils
Cats and rabbits are obligate nasal breathers, mouth breathing indicates severe respiratory compromise
External genitalia appearance and discharge colours
Check for any swelling or abnormalities
Blood-stained discharge - normal reproductive cycle
Purulent discharge - pyometra
Green discharge in bitch - postpartum infection
Brown discharge - imminent parturition
Normal and abnormal indicators - Muscle wastage
Think: Is it symmetrical ?
Usually normal but could be abnormal
Anything asymmetrical is abnormal.
Overall appearance of condition
Coat quality (alopecia could be a sign of endocrine disease)
Examine skin for dryness, scaliness, greasiness and evidence of parasites
Evaluation of skin elasticity can indicate hydration status
What can abnormal head posture mean?
-vestibular syndrome
-middle ear disease
-encephalitozoon cuniculi - protozoan (condition in rabbits)
Normal and abnormal indicators - Mobility in animals
Can they move freely
Any signs of pain
Range of movement (flexion, extension and rotation)
Look at their gait
Proprioception tests to evaluate neurological function
Joints
Gently palpate for signs of discomfort, swelling and crepitus
Muscles
Claws and pads (frayed/torn nails may indicate RTA)
Lymph node position
Palpate for evidence of enlargement
Lymphadenopathies - diseases of the lymph nodes
Enlarged nodes may indicate infection or neoplasia which could be systemic or localised
Normal and abnormal indicators - Thorax
Respiratory rate and effort (is it normal or how does it compare)
Vertebrate and rib cage (body condition score)
Auscultation (heartbeat normal/abnormal/rhythm)
Lungs normal (abnormal crackles or rales indicating pathology such as pneumonia or bronchitis)
Normal and abnormal indicators - Abdomen
Visual for distension
Possibilities - ascitic fluid, haemorrhage, gas in stomach, pregnant uterus, pyometra or bladder)
Palpitation - gentle, internal structures can be located, abnormalities detected, can be difficult in obese or tense patients .
Normal and abnormal indicators - tail
Is there voluntary movement ?
Autotomy (shedding of the tail in some lizards)
If the tail is damaged, check for urinary function
Normal parameters in dogs?
Temp = 38.3 - 39.2 degrees Celsius
Heart rate = 70 -140 bpm
Respiratory rate = 10 - 30
Normal parameters in cats
Temp = 38.2 - 38.6 degrees Celsius
Heart rate = 100 - 200 bpm
Respiratory rate = 30 - 60
Normal parameters in rabbits
Temp = 38.5 - 40 degrees Celsius
Heart rate = 130 - 325 bpm
Respiratory rate = 30 - 60
What is the formula for finding out normal water intake?
50-60mls/kg/day
Eg —> a 5kg cat has 50mls a day per kg
50 X 5 = 250mls over 24hrs
250mls divided 24 = 10.41 mls per hour (for fluids)
What is vomiting ?
- forceful evacuation of stomach contents via mouth
-nausea, hypersalivation, retching, abdominal contraction
What is regurgitation ?
- passive movement of food or liquid into the mouth, without warning or signs
What species cannot vomit?
Hamsters, Rabbits and Guinea pigs
Hamsters can expel contents of check pouches
What is normal urine production ?
1-2ml / kg/ hr
Normal and abnormal indicators - urine
Checked for:
-smell
-colour
-turbidity
-volume
(Rabbit urine - plant pigments cause colour to vary from deep yellow to red)
(Guinea pig and chinchilla urine is yellow and cloudy)
Normal and abnormal indicators - Defecation
‘Normal’ amount and characteristic vary massively according to species
Check:
-colour
-smell
-shape
-consistency
Rabbits produce cecotropes (Cecil pellets) which are eaten.
Pain recognition dogs
0 - comfortable, happy,content, non-tender
1 - content to slightly unsettled, distracted easily. Reacts to palpitation, looking around, whimpering.
2 - looks uncomfortable when resting, whimpering, not eager, flinches, cries, guards.
3 - unsettled, crying, groaning, biting, may be be subtle may be dramatic
4 - constantly groaning or screaming, crying, biting, potentially unresponsive
Pain recognition in cats
0 - content, quiet, comfortable, not bothered
1 - subtle signs, withdrawal, slightly unsettled
2 - seeks solitude, quiet, responds aggressively
3 - constant yowling, growling, reacting aggressively, avoids contact
4 - Prostrate, potentially unresponsive, may not respond to palpitation, may be rigid to avoid movement
Pain recognition in rabbits
- anorexia
-reduced thirst - changes in gait
-hunched
-frozen appearance
-teeth grinding
-aggression
-licking or rubbing site of pain
-reduced interaction with environment
How can you identify an animal?
- photographs
-ownership
-markings/breed
-microchip
-injuries and markings from fights
-collar and tag
-tattoos
Animal characteristics that may help with identification?
- bark
-ears
-muzzle size
-size of the dog
-coat
-markings
-colour
-behaviour and temperament
When is ear tip removal used ?
To indicate the neutered status in stray cats and dogs
What is the Control of Dogs Order 1992
- any dog in a public place must wear a collar with the name, address and postcode of the owner engraved on it or engraved onto a tag.
A fine of up to £5000 for failing to comply.
What is a microchip?
A transducer containing a unique number which is accessed by a handheld reader, placed subcutaneously (S/C).
It can migrate after placement.
It is a small size no larger than a grain of rice.
What year did the law for microchipping change?
April 2016
Up to a £500 fine if the dog is not chipped.
Must be done by 8 weeks.
If they are too small an exemption certificate is required.
When did the law for microchipping cats change?
13th march 2023
All cats must be chipped by June 10th 2024
Must be done before the age of 20 weeks
Advantages of microchipping
- easy identification
- definite
-permanent
-tamper proof
-low cost
-little pain
-can be read from a distance
Disadvantages of microchipping
-invasive
-invisible
-can move/migrate
-may require sedation
-occasional abscess formation
-detection requires a reader
-not all readers read all chips
Tattooing animals
Ink marking numbers/letters
Common positions - inside pinna or inside flank
Can be seen in imported animals, animals used for racing or laboratory animals
Advantages of tattooing animals
- clear
- permanent
-little specialist equipment needed
-cheap
-very difficult to tamper with or erase
Disadvantages of tattooing animals
-painful
-messy
-not visible from a distance
-liable to be irregular
-many difficult to read accurately
Bands and rings - animal identification
-metal or plastic
-can be colour coded
-can have a number (eg racing pigeons, wild birds or valuable birds of prey)
The animal should be fully grown, the band needs checking that it is not too tight causing injury or swelling. Bands can also get caught leading to injury.
Animal identification- ear tags
A legal requirement for farm animals
Enables bio security
Animal identification - DNA
-DNA analysis can be used to identify individual animals
-expensive and rarely done for pets (dogs and cats)
-can be used to confirm parentage
-DNA analysis also used to determine sex of birds
EU travel - PETS
You can no longer use a pet passport issued in Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland) for travel to an EU country or Northern Ireland.
You can still use a pet passport issued in an EU country or Northern Ireland
When travelling to an EU country or Northern Ireland your pet needs;
-a microchip
-a valid rabies vaccine
-an animal health certificate (unless you have a pet passport issued in an EU country or Northern Ireland)
-tapeworm treatment for dogs if you are travelling directly to Finland, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Norway or Malta
These requirements also apply to assistance dogs.
Repeat travel to EU or Northern Ireland.
Your pet will need a new animal health certificate each time
Your pet will not need a repeat rabies vaccinations as long as they are up to date.
Dogs will need a tapeworm tablet if travelling directly to Finland, Ireland, Malta, Northern Ireland or Norway.
Rabies vaccinations for travel
Rabies vaccine - dog cat or ferret. Must be at least 12 weeks old.
If you’re taking your pet to the EU or Northern Ireland you must wait 21 days after the primary vaccine before you travel.
Microchip be done before or at the same time as their rabies vaccination.
Vaccination must be inactivated or recombinant thats approved in the country of use.
Tapeworm treatments and boosters
Tapeworm treatment must be given no less than 24 hrs and no more than 5 days before you arrive.
Treatment must be approved for use in the county it’s being given in
Contain praziquantel or an equivalent
Regular rabies booster vaccinations are required.
Both must be recorded on the animal health certificate.
Travelling to a non EU country
Need an Export health certificate (EHC) and need to complete an export application form (EXA) if you’re in England, Scotland or Wales.
An EHC checks that your pet meets the requirements of the country you’re travelling too.
Must nominate an official vet who will be sent the EHC, they’ll check your pet has met the correct health and identification requirements before you travel.
What are the requirements for entering the uk?
-a microchip
-rabies vaccination (after having a microchip)
-travellers from EU and listed 3rd countries need to wait 21 days after primary rabies vaccination before travelling.
-tapeworm tablet, no less than 24hrs and no more than 5 days.
-blood test.
What is the youngest age a pet can come into the uk?
15 weeks
Welfare of Animals (Transport) 2006
-applies to people who transport live vertebrate animals inc farm livestock.
3 things you must do when transporting animals:
-plan the journey and keep it as short as poss
-check the animals during the journey (food, water, rest)
-sufficient floor space and height
Who enforces welfare during transport ?
-APHA and the local council
What documents must you have to transport animals in the UK by road?
- a certificate off vehicle approval (for journeys over 8hrs)
-a certificate of competence or to complete training for livestock, equines and poultry.
-a journey log (imports, exports, transits of livestock and unregistered equines on journeys over 8hrs)
-an animal transport certificate (for all journeys not covered by a journey log)
What are nutrients?
Nutrients are a metabolically useful component of food that helps to support life
What are the 6 essential nutrients ?
1.protein
2.fat
3.carbohydrate
4.minerals
5.water
6.vitamins
What are the 3 energy producing nutrients ?
Fat, proteins, carbohydrates
What are nutrients used for?
- Structural component, growth, repair and reproduction
- Metabolism
- Transport
- Temperature regulation
- Energy supply
What is an essential nutrient ?
An absolute requirement.
Cannot be synthesised by the body and must be provided within the diet
If they are not present or levels are low the diet is inadequate
Each essential nutrient has a specific function within the body
What are the functions of water ?
- Electrolyte balance
- Temperature regulation
- Removal of waste
- Helps digestion of food
- Its a transport medium for nutrients
- Required for some chemical reactions in the body
- A major component of blood and lymph
What is the water maintenance requirement for a dog or cat?
50-60ml/kg/24hr
What is the formula for fluid maintenance?
Min - 50 X BW = over a day
Over a day divided by 24 = hourly rate
Max - 60 X BW = over a day
Over a day divided by 24 = hourly rate
Normal urinary loss ?
20ml/kg/day
Normal faecal loss?
10-20ml/kg/day
Insensible loss per day?
20ml/kg/day
What is the water requirement for rabbits and small mammals ?
75-100ml/kg/day
What is the water requirement for birds?
2ml/kg/hour
48ml/kg/day
What is the water requirement for reptiles?
10-30ml/kg/day
What are macronutrients?
Nutrients we need in larger quantities
Provide us with energy
Measured in kilocalories (Kcal)
What are proteins?
Proteins are large complex molecules composed of long chains of amino acids bound together by peptide linkages.
Amino acids joined together are called ?
Peptides
What are 2 peptides called ?
Dipeptide
What are 3 peptides called ?
Tripeptide
What are more than 3 peptides called ?
Polypeptide
How many amino acids are there ?
Most can be synthesised by the animals body.
Others need to be provided within the diet as the body cant synthesise them - known as essential amino acids.
How many essential amino acids do dogs have?
10
How many essential amino acids do cats have?
11
Define complete proteins
Contain ample amounts of essential amino acids and are found in food such as meat/fish/eggs
Define incomplete proteins
Do not provide all essential amino acids and are found in many foods including veg/grains/legumes
What is biological value (BV) defined as?
The quality of protein
What does the quality of protein depend on?
- the amount and number of essential amino acids
-how digestible the protein is
-how palatable or acceptable is the protein to the animal
-how easily can the body utilise the protein
What are the functions of dietary protein ?
-tissue growth and repair
-manufacture of hormones and enzymes
-source of energy
-protection against infections
-transport of oxygen
-regulation of metabolism
-structural role in cell walls
-increased requirement: growth, lactation, pregnancy, tissue repair post-surgery etc.
What happens if more protein is consumed than required?
Cannot be stored so the liver converts the amino part to urea and excretes it via the kidneys.
The acid part is converted to glycogen or fat and stored as adipose tissue
Consequences of excessive dietary protein are?
Detrimental to health of older animals
May speed growth
May be a causal factor in the development of orthopaedic problems in young and large canine breeds
Consequences of inadequate dietary protein are?
Poor growth
Weight loss
Dull coat
Muscle atrophy
Increased susceptibility to disease
Anaemia
Infertility
Oedema
Emaciation
What is the most common form of dietary fat?
Triglycerides
Consist of 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids
What do fatty acids vary on?
Length
Presence and number of double bonds
Location of the first double bond
What can fatty acids be?
Saturated - no double bonds in the hydrogen chain
Monosaturated - one double bond
Polyunsaturated- more than one double bond
They determine the physical and nutritional characteristics of the lipid
What are the function of fats ?
-provision and storage of energy
-aids absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K)
-insulation
-metabolic and structural functions
-synthesis of hormones
-taste
-source of essential fatty acids (EFA’s - linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic)
What is arachidonic acid?
An omega 6 found in animal fats, poultry skin and beef fat
(Obligate carnivores- cats must have this in their diet)
What is linoleic acid?
An omega 6 sourced from vegetable oils
What is linolenic acid ?
An omega 3 found in fish oil
Omega 3 EFA have anti-inflammatory actions.
What is carbohydrates made up of?
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
What is the primary function of carbohydrates ?
An energy source (3.5kcal/gram)
May also be converted to glycogen or fat and stored
What are carbohydrates used for?
Synthesis of other essential body compounds such as RNA and DNA
Source of fibre
Source of energy
Monosaccharides are made up of
Glucose , fructose (simple sugars)
Glucose is the primary form of carbohydrate for energy - circulates in the bloodstream.
Disaccharides are made up of
Maltose, sucrose, lactose
Digestion of disaccharides is controlled by specific enzymes.
Polysaccharides are made up of
Starch, glycogen and fibre (complex carbohydrates)
Found widely
What are the functions of dietary fibre ?
-increases bulk and water in the intestinal content
-low energy content aids in the correction and prevention of obesity
-regulation of intestinal gut transit time and bowel movements
-maintenance of the structural integrity of the gut mucosa
-therapeutic uses in the treatment of fibre responsive diseases
-alteration of nutrient absorption and metabolism
-to help maintain the health of the colon
-Sources of soluble fibre can help regulate blood glucose - relevant in diabetic dogs
What negative side effects can excessive dietary fibre cause?
- flactulence and boroygmi
-increased bowel movements
-increased faecal outputs
-constipation due to the bulking effects (especially if low water intake)
What are vitamins?
Essential for good health but don’t provide energy
Split into 2 families - some are soluble in fat and some in water
If excess fat-soluble vitamins are consumed they can build up in the body and become toxic, water soluble vitamins are passed out in urine.
What is the function of vitamin A?
Vision and skin
What is the function of Vitamin D?
Calcium and phosphorus metabolism
What is the function of Vitamin E?
Antioxidant
What is the function of Vitamin K?
Blood clotting
What are minerals ?
Naturally occurring inorganic elements in a food.
Often referred to as ash on pet food labels
More than 18 minerals are essential
What are macro/major minerals?
Required in diet in larger amounts
-calcium and phosphorus
-sodium and potassium chloride
-magnesium
What are micro/trace minerals ?
Required in much smaller amounts
(Iron, zinc, copper, maganese, iodine, selenium)
What are electrolytes ?
Minerals in salt form found in the body tissues and fluids
What is balanced nutrition important for?
-energy production
-temperature regulation
-structure (skeleton, muscles and organs)
-storage
-waterproofing
-insulation
-growth and repair
-reproduction
-anabolism
-catabolism
How would you assess nutritional requirements ?
-assess current nutritional status
-clinical history
-physical examination
-BCS
-lab results
-species variation
What factors may affect nutritional requirements ?
-metabolic rate
-feeding pattern
-altered diet according to condition, disease, injury
-altered digestion
-bodily function
-hospitalisation = change of exercise pattern and stress
What conditions will affect the metabolic rate?
-thyroid
-diabetic
-post neuter
Diabetes mellitus
-chronic endocrine disorder
-results in an imbalance in metabolism of carbohydrate, fat and protein
-if an animal has diabetes there diet should be at the same time each day, be the same quantity, and contain uniform ingredients
-if there is other co-existing conditions they may take priority over managing diabetes
-cats can go into remission if well controlled
What is the nutritional profile of a patient with diabetes
Dogs:
-low starch
-devoid of simple sugars
-high quality protein
-high level of soluble and insoluble fibre
Cats are not able to manage high carbohydrate diets as they don’t have amylase to break carbohydrate down.
Hyperthyroidism
-an over production of hormones by the thyroid gland located at the front of neck.
-causes a rapid heartbeat, sudden weight loss, tremor, difficulty sleeping and behavioural changes
-body is kept constantly at an unnaturally high level of energy which places an enormous strain on the other systems.
Diet for a patient with hyperthyroidism
Hills y/d
-decreases thyroid hormone (T4) production in 3 weeks
-supports kidney, heart and urinary health
-visible improvement in skin and coat
-helps maintain lean muscle mass
S+OXSHEILD
-formulated to promote a urinary environment that reduces the risk of developing structure and calcium oxide crystals
-limited iodine
-controlled phosphorus and low sodium and enriched with omega-3 fatty acids
-omega-6 fatty acids to promote a healthy skin and coat
-high levels of L-carnitine to support healthy body condition
-must be fed this as a sole diet to work - no treats or hunting allowed
Obesity
-in young there is an increase in fat cell numbers: hyperplasia, the animal will be predisposed to obesity
-in adults there is an increase in fat cell size: hypertrophy
-obese dogs live 2 years kess then idea weight dogs
Orthopaedic disease
Nutrition is a key role in early life and a poor diet prior to growth plate closure especially in large and giant breeds may dispose to (canine hip displaysia, osteochondrosis)
Excess energy provision can cause rapid skeleton growth which can lead to orthopaedic disease via increased biomechanical stress
Excess dietary calcium disrupts the endochondral ossification. Calcium to phosphorus ration 1:2:1
Recommend
-appropriate diet for life stage
-puppy food for pregnant mum
-no calcium supplement for mum or pups
Heart diseases
Taurine and L-carnitine are implicated with the development of cardiomyopathy in cats and dogs. Both are required to metabolise fatty acids.
Taurine deficiency-included dilated cardiomyopathy in both dogs and cats
L-cartilage is suspected to be indicative of cardiomyopathy in boxers
Congestive heart failure
Dietary management:
-restricted sodium content
-antioxidants
-increased levels of taurine and L-carnitine
-omega 3 fatty acids
-high digestibility
-care with treats as often high in sodium
Renal disease
-chronic renal failure (CRF)
-progressive disease
-common in senior cats
-damage is irreversible
-clinical signs : show when up to 75% of kidney function is lost
-loss of function is associated with the accumulation of toxic protein catabolites and the failure to excrete phosphorus
Dietary management for renal disease
-restricted protein to reduce nitrogenous waste
-highly digestible and high biological value protein
-renal diets - specially formulated to prevent protein malnutrition
-restrict phosphorus (phosphorus binders)
-Control sodium and chloride
-potassium supplements
-enhanced B-complex vitamins
-omega 3 fatty acids
-palatabiltiy
Hepatic disease
Liver functions may be affected
The liver can regenerate and nutritional support can support the liver to delay or prevent irreversible damage
Diet must have:
Moderate levels of high quality protein
High L-carnitine and L-arginine
Appropriate levels of zinc and low copper
Reduces liver workload and helps to regenerate
Moderate to high fat levels increase energy density and reduces protein catabolism
Added vitamins help avoid nutrient deficiencies commonly related to liver issues
Copper toxicity can occur in westies, terriers and Doberman. Results in copper accumulation in the liver
Feed a diet low in copper and high in zinc as zinc reduces intestinal uptake of copper
What is pancreatitis ?
Inflammation of the pancreas
Pancreatic disease
May need nutritional intervention - feeding tube or parental nutrition
Low to medium fat diet
Obesity is a risk factor so once recovered a weight loss diet may be needed
Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
Unable to digest fats, carbohydrates and proteins
Lack of pancreatic enzymes, common in young animals 1-2 years old and GSD
Causes steatorrhea
Dietary management of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
Low dietary fat
Easily digestible diet
Enhanced B complex vitamins
Supplement with pancreatic enzymes
Avoid high fibre
What is vomiting ?
Forceful evacuation of stomach contents
When a patient is vomiting what should you provide them?
-key nutrients = potassium, sodium and chloride
-IVFT fluids
-feed reduced fat food with highly digestible proteins
If chronic - find out the cause and treat appropriately
If a patient has diarrhoea how should you treat them?
-bland diet, digestible and low fat
-never starve over 24hr
-rehydrate and correct electrolyte imbalance
-feed single/novel protein source to prevent acquired dietary allergies
-highly digestible protein and carbohydrate diet
If chronic:
-high quality protein
-low fat
-enhanced B-complex vitamins
What is idiopathic colitis and how do you treat it?
It is a type of chronic diarrhoea
Symptoms = tenesmus and small volumes of mucous covered faeces
Treatment =
high digestible macro-nutrients to reduce digestive challenge
Low antigen content (reduces chance of immunological reaction)
Fibre responsive to slow the transit
What is gastric dilation volvulus and the feeding management ?
Life threatening disorder often seen in deep chested dogs
Profession of bloat into a volvulus - gas filled stomach twists upon itself making the entrance and exit of the stomach blocked.
Requires urgent surgery
Feeding management:
-feed little and often
-do not feed just before or after exercise
-do not allow to drink big volumes of water
-use a highly digestible meat based diet to encourage gastric emptying and reduce stomach distension
Dietary insensitivity
Clinically abnormal response to the ingestion of a particular food item.
A true food allergy or hypersensitivity is an immunological response caused by an antibody, immune complex or cell mediated response.
Food intolerance may result from an inability to properly digest the food (non-immune).
Adverse reactions manifest themselves as either skin or gastrointestinal disorders or both
Dietary management:
-novel single source protein source
-hydrolysed diet
-restricted carbohydrate
-highly digestible macro - nutrients
What are the top dietary allergens in dogs?
Chicken, beef, wheat, eggs
What are the top dietary allergens in cats?
Poultry, fish, beef, lamb,dairy
What is idiopathic cystitis and how is it treated ?
Cystitis of an unknown origin
Can present as a ‘blocked cat’ - emergency
Stress link which needs to be managed urgently
More common in males
Clinical signs may resolve in 5-7 days but may recur
Not bacterial in origin so no antibiotics required
Need to increase water intake - feed wet diet
Encourage weight loss and increase activity
Analgesia
What is crystalluria and how is it treated ?
-presence of significant amounts of crystals within the urine
-a few crystals can be normal or an artefact from storage
-can cause blocked cat
-causes = cystitis, haematuria and pain
Diet management will depend on which crystals are present
Increased water intake and wet diet
Struvite and calcium oxide
More common in cats but can occur in dogs
Diets acidify urine which helps to dissolve crystals/stones
Diluting urine decreases the urinary concentration of struvite and calcium oxalate crystals
Greater urinary volumes helps to flush the bladder out
Diets contain higher sodium to encourage urination but can’t be fed to young/growing/pregant animals or those with CRF or heart disease
Diets are low in magnesium
Urate and cystine
Mainly affects dogs
Needs to be surgically removed if large
Diet alkalises the urine helping the stones to dissolve
Moderate quantity of high quality proteins combined with restricted sodium reduces the development of cystine stones
Low in purine proteins when combined with production of alkaline urine reduces the risk of urate stone formation
What are purine proteins
Eggs
Wheat Flour
Define simple starvation
Absence of nutrition in healthy animals - causing it to utilise glycogen stores to meet energy requirements
Define stress starvation
Metabolic response to trauma, inflammation or disease.
Leads to catabolism of lean muscle mass and preservation of fat stores
Especially pronounced in cats
Sorting a suitable feeding regime asap is vital to recovery and prevention of complications
Indication for nutritional support
Recent weight loss greater than 10% body weight
Anorexic for longer than 3 days
Severe underlying disease
Large protein losses
Muscle wasting, poor coat, poor wound healing
Hypoalbuminaemia
Hepatic lipidosis in cats
Body condition below ideal (3)
How can you support an animal nutritionally ?
Medication/ pain relief
Warm food
Clean away discharges - may encourage them to eat as feeling clean
Dampen mucous membranes
Force feeding (syringe)
Feeding tubes (enteral feeding)
Dietary requirements:
-high fat
-increased protein quality and quantity
-enhanced vitamins and minerals
-high digestibility and proteins
What is genetics ?
Science of inheritance
What are genes?
The basic unit of inheritance
Information that determines characteristics are located and carried within genes
What are chromosomes ?
Thread like structures
Found in the nucleus
Made up of protein and DNA
What is the structure of of genes
In long chains known as chromosomes
How many chromosomes does a dog have?
78 chromosomes
36 pairs
How many chromosomes does a cat have?
38 chromosomes
19 pairs
2 chromosomes are sex chromosomes known as X and Y what are the rest called?
Autosomes
Chromosomes
Made up of protein and DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) which consists of 2 parallel unbranched strands twisting around each other in a double helix
Strands are formed by 4 amino acids:
Adenine - thymine
Guanine - cytosine
Known as base pairs
Define diploid
Cells with the full number of chromosomes
Define haploid
Contain only one copy of each chromosome
What is a chromatid
A newly copied chromosome that is still joined to the original chromosome
Homologous pairs
Homologous chromosomes are made up of chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, for genes with the same corresponding loci.
Who is responsible for determining the sex of offspring
The male , they are heterogametic
(XY chromosomes)
What chromosomes does the female carry?
XX
They are homogametic
Define gene locus
Instructions for certain characteristics or traits are found at the same location on both chromosomes
What are sex-linked genes?
Genes located on the sex chromosome
What is a recessive gene ?
Alleles that are only expressed if there are 2 copies of it in a cell
Represented with a lowercase letter
What is a dominant gene ?
Genes that are expressed when only one copy is present and suppresses the other allele
Represented using an uppercase letter
What is co-dominant
If both alleles are expressed
Define homozygous
If an animal has two identical alleles of a specific gene
Eg - AA or aa
Define heterozygous
If the two alleles of that gene differ from one another
Eg - Aa
Define genotype
Genetic makeup of an individual -this can only be accurately appreciated by examination of the DNA
Define phenotype
-external appearance of an animal
-this is influenced not only by genes but also by the environmental factors such as diet, disease and exercise
Phenotype = genotype + environment
What are lethal genes?
Incompatible with life, if an animal expresses a lethal gene it will die from the effects sooner or later.
Usually recessive genes so the affected individual must be homozygous
Define classic lethal
Affected individuals die in the uterus or shortly after birth
Define delayed lethal
Affected individuals will die from a progressive condition later in life
Define semi-lethal
These produce mild abnormalities that may not necessarily kill the animal
Mutations
Random chance mutation = genetic change
Chemical change or damage = radiation
These changes pass onto the next generation
If the mutation is harmful and kills the individual the gene will die out and not be passed on
May produce an advantage and that would be passed onto the next generation though reproduction
Mitosis
Cell division in which each dividing cell produces identical daughter cells, both contain the same amount of genetic material as the parent cell.
Contains the diploid number of chromosomes
Somatic cell: any cell except those involved in reproduction
Meiosis
Cell division resulting in 4 daughter cells
Each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
Each cell has the haploid number of chromosomes
Mendels 1st law of inheritance
Each person has 2 genes that determine every characteristic.
Mother has 2 genes for eye colour and father has 2 genes for eye colour
But you only get 1 from each
The law of segregation says that the one you get from each parent is random
Mendels 2nd law of inheritance
Independent assortment
The law of independent assortment
Refers to the fact that any plant or animal contains many kinds of genes
1 gene determines flower colour, 1 gene determines stem length and 1 determines the shape of the pod
Mendel discovered that the way alleles from different genes separate and then recombine is unconnected to other genes.
That is reliant on a plant containing genes for colour (RR) and for the shape of pod (TT) then Mendels 2nd law says that 2 genes will segregate independently
Mendels 3rd law
Law of dominance
Some alleles of the same gene are dominant and others recessive.
An organism only needs 1 copy of the dominant allele to display the effect of that allele.
Who is Mendel ?
19th century Austrian monk who studied variation in plants
Where is the pituitary gland located ?
Lays ventral to the hypothalamus in the forebrain
‘Master gland’
What does the pituitary gland produce ?
Hormones
Anterior / posterior (bi-lobed)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Produced by the anterior pituitary
Targets the leydig cells in males and stimulates the release of testosterone
In females it targets the ovaries causing ovulation and development of the corpus luteum.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Produced by the anterior pituitary
Targets the Sertoli cells in males causing spermatogenesis
In females it targets the ovaries, stimulating growth of the follicles which contain the ova
Prolactin
Produced by the anterior pituitary
Targets the mammary glands to stimulate development during pregnancy and milk let down during parturition
Oxytocin
Produced by the posterior pituitary
Targets the uterus during parturition causing contraction of the smooth muscle.
It also acts on the muscles lining the mammary glands, resulting in milk let down.
What is the oestrus cycle and what does it involve ?
- rhythmic cycle of events with only a limited time of sexual receptivity
-also known as ‘oestrus’
Involves:
-timing
-female behavioural changes
-reproductive tract must be ready and primed at the correct time
What are the 3 different times of oestrus cycle ?
Mono-oestrus
Polyoestrous
Seasonally polyoestrus
Define mono-oestrus
One oestrus cycle per breeding cycle
Define polyoestrus
Multiple oestrus cycles throughout the year
Define seasonally polyoestrus
Multiple oestrus cycles during a particular time of year
What are the stages of oestrus
- Pro-oestrus
- Oestrus
- Metoestrus
4.anoestrus
- each cycle lasts a typical number of days in particular species
Oestrus cycle of the bitch
-puberty starts at 6-23 months
-most bitches have had their first oestrus by 12-14 months of age
-have 1-2 cycles a year
-each cycle ends with a spontaneous ovulation
-the oestrus cycle is non seasonal
-intervals vary from 5-13 months (average is 7 months)
-polytocous (produces multiple offspring in each litter)
Pro-oestrus in bitches
Length = 7-10 days
Signs:
-vulval swelling
-pheromone release
-increase in the thickness of the vaginal epithelium
-serosanguinous (bloody) vulval discharge
-more frequent urination with excitable/flirty behaviour
Hormones:
-increasing plasma concentrations of oestrogen
-increasing oestrogen levels have negative feedback on FSH and LH release from anterior pituitary
Oestrus in the bitch
Length = 7-10 days
Signs:
-stand to be mated
-deviation of tail and presenting vulva to male
-vulva remains enlarged
-pale straw-coloured discharge
Hormones:
-surge in FSH and LH triggers ovulation
-each egg ovulates from a follicle, leaving a corpus luteum which produces progesterone.
Metoestrous (dioestrus) in bitches
Length = 2-3 months
Signs:
-vaginal discharge gradually dries up
-swollen vulva shrinks
-bitches behaviour returns to normal
Hormones:
-corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone
-towards the end of metoestrus:
-Prolactin released from pituitary gland - whether the bitch is pregnant or not and is the reason why false pregnancy is common in the bitch.
Anoestrus in the bitch
Length = 5 months
Signs:
-period of quiescence
-in non-pregnant bitches progesterone declines gradually and transition to anoestrus is smooth
-no or very low hormonal activity
-towards the end of this period some of the ovarian follicles begin to develop and secrete oestrogen and the cycle begins again
This is the best time to neuter
Oestrous cycle of the queen
First cycle is between 6-9 months on average (can come into season as early as 4 months)
Photoperiod dependant - long day breeders
Seasonally poly-oestrous (multiple oestrus cycles between Feb and Sept)
No hormone activity during the winter
Induced ovulators: induced by coitus
Pro-oestrus in queen
Length = 2-3 days
Signs:
Follicular development (release of FSH and LH)
Causes production of oestrogen
Thickening of vaginal epithelium
Attraction of the male - although at this stage the queen will not accept mating
Oestrus in the queen
Length = 2-10 days
Signs:
Increasing concentrations of oestrogen
Vocalisation - loud persistent yowling
Rubbing against objects
Threading hind feet
Lateral deviation of tail
Lordosis of spine
Ovulation induced by mating
Interoestus in the queen
Length = 3-14 days
Signs:
If queen is not mated or when mating does not result in ovulation:
Signs of oestrous subside
Queen becomes non receptive
After this time (3-14 days) the queen returns to pro-oestrus
Anoestrus in the queen
Autumn and winter
No ovarian activity
Pregnancy in the queen
Ovulation only occurs when the queen is mated
Corpus luteum releases progesterone
Progesterone maintains pregnancy
Sterile mating - cat ovulates. Corpus luteum produces progesterone causing pseudopregnancy
How do we know if animals are pregnant ?
Clinical signs
Abdominal palpitation
3-4 weeks = small swelling
6-7 weeks = individual parts of foetuses
Hormonal levels - relaxin levels are diagnostic of pregnancy
Ultrasound:
Commonly used
Pregnancy diagnosis from day 16 after ovulation
Optimum time is 28 days post mating
Fetal heart beats can be seen
Numbers can be seen but can be inaccurate- don’t tell owners
Radiography:
After day 45 when mineralisation of fetal skeleton is detected
Unlikely damage to fetus but care with GA or sedation
Numbers can be given when counting skulls
What is pseudopregancy ?
Phantom pregnancy
Common in the bitch
Clinical signs:
Weight gain
Nesting behaviour
Abdominal enlargement
Mammary enlargement and lactation
Exercise intolerant
Adoption of imaginary puppies such as toys/slippers
Anorexia
Temperment change = grumpy
Overprotective behaviors
Treatment = waiting it out, remove all nests/toys/slippers and hormonal treatment
Pseudopregnancy in the queen
Rare in the cat
1-2 months after oestrous
Corpus luteum will produce progesterone as it would in pregnancy
Can occur as a result of stimulation of vagina (collection of a vaginal spear) or perineum (self -induced) or spontaneously
About 36-40 days after progesterone concentrations decline and the queen returns to cyclical activity
There are rarely any clinical signs
Misalliance
Bitch:
Alizin - injectable solution used twice 24 hours apart to induce resorption/abortion
Oestrogen compounds (oestrodiol benzoate) within 4 days of mating (brings on oestrus)
Queen:
Administer progestogens if the queen is still in oestrus
Alternatively use aglepristone if she has ovulated
Often queens are neutered
When should mating occur between dogs?
Usually at the end of the 2nd week of the oestrus cycle when the red discharge has almost stopped
Why is it normal for the female to be taken to the male for mating (dogs)?
For the male to feel more comfortable/confident
What are the clinical signs that a bitch is ready to mate?
- standing oestrus, noted as the first day bitch will accept mating
-vulval softening
What hormones indicate that the bitch is ready to mate?
-LH
-progesterone
Not oestrogen as the plateau is not predictive of the timing of ovulation
Anoestrus cytology
Only a few cells thick
Cells are small and spherical
‘Parabasal cells’
Small number of neutrophils
Proestrus cytology
Epithelial lining may be up to 6 cells thick
Cells are slightly larger than the parabasal cells
‘Small intermediate cells’
Also see neutrophils, parabasal cells and erythrocytes
Oestrus cytology
Epithelial layers increase to 12 layers thick
Surface cells are now larger
‘Large intermediate cells’
Some are keratinised
Some are anucleated
Erythrocytes will be present in larger numbers but no WBC seen
Metoestrus cytology
Epithelial tissue sloughed
Cell numbers reduce
Only small intermediate cells present
Vacuoles have a ‘fomay’ appearance: AKA foam cells
Very few erythrocytes
Larger numbers of neutrophils
Normal mating behaviour of the dog
-playful behaviour when first introduced
-bitch will settle with her tail deviated to one side to allow mating
- Mounting - dog may ejaculate a small amount of clear fluid either before or whilst trying to gain intermission (first fraction is to clear the urethra)
2.thrusting and intermission
3.erection - swelling of the bulb
4.ejaculation - release of 2nd fraction which is sperm rich fluid
5.dog turns 180° and dismounts whilst his penis remains inside the bitch (stand tail to tail) known as the ‘tie’ and is associated with the release of the 3rd fraction to flush sperm forwards through cervix to uterus
6.Break tie and dismount once the swelling of the bulbous gland subsides the tie will be broken.
Problems with the bitch when mating
-attempt to mate too early in oestrus
-inexperienced bitches may panic during intermission
-rigid hymen (may be broken with a gloved finger)
-swelling of the vaginal mucosa which prevents intromission
-endocrinological (delayed purity, silent oestrus, failure to ovulate)
-ovarian (cysts, tumors)
-uterine (cystic endometrial hyperplasia , can progress into a pyometra)
Problems with the dog when mating
Inexperienced
Phimosis
Absense of libido
Back or hind limb problems
-endocrinological (pituitary gland, small testes)
-testicular (cryptorchid, monorchid, orchits, tumors)
-accessory glands (prostate cysts, prostatis, tumours)
-penile (phimosis, lymphoid hyperplasia)
Normal mating in the cat
-queen should be taken to the stud
-male will spray living area, queen moves in next door so they can get to know each other
-once in together he will grab hold of her by the scruff with his teeth and mount her
-pelvic thrusting, followed by penetration and ejaculation
-queen will scream as he is withdrawing - aka the ‘coital yell’ (tomcats penis is covered in barbs)
-she will the try to free herself and attack him
-they then lay down, groom/clean themselves
-after calming down mating is then repeated for the next 24hrs
What is AI?
Artificial insemination
A method of introducing semen, previously collected from a male and depositing it into a females vagina or uterus.
What are the 3 different ways in which semen can be preserved prior to insemination?
Fresh
Chilled
Frozen
What are the 3 fractions of male ejaculate
1st - clear fluid
2nd - sperm rich
3rd - clear fluid
Only 2nd is used in AI
Puberty ages
Bitch = 7-12 months
Dog = 6-12 months
Queen = 6-9 months (may start at 4 months)
Tomcat = 8-12 months (could be 5 months)
Gestation periods
Bitch = 9 weeks/63 days
Queen = 9 weeks/63 days
Rabbit = 29-35 days (average 31 days)
Medically controlling the reproductive cycle in the bitch
-ovariohysterectomy
-medical inhibition of oestrus cycle
-induction of oestrus
Medically controlling the reproductive cycle in the queen
-ovariohysterectomy
-medical inhibition of oestrus cycle
-induction of oestrus
Rabbits sexual maturity
Female (does) at 4-5 months
Males (bucks) at 5-8 months
Females are ‘seasonally polyoestrus’
Females are induced ovulators
-phantom pregnancy - 42 days post ovulation
Guinea pig , reproductive
Sexual maturity = between 1.5 and 3 months of age
Oestrus cycle interval 15-17 days (duration 6-11 hours)
Pregnancy 59-72 days, 63 on average
Spontaneous ovulation
Piglets are precocial
Sow should have her first litter before 8 months of age to prevent fusion of the pubic symphysis
Foetal development steps
- Ovary releases an ovum
- Sperm travels to the ovum which is in the fallopian tube
- The ovum is fertilised and divides into 2 cells - this takes 96 hrs
- 20 hrs later it divides into 4 cells
- 144 hrs later it divides into 8 cells
- 192 hrs later it divides into a call of cells called the morula
- This is a total of 8-9 days by then the morula has moved towards the uterus
What layers does the morula formation break into?
Ectoderm - forms the skin and nervous system
Mesoderm - forms several organs and the musculoskeletal system
Endoderm - will form the lining of the GI tract and other visceral organs
Zonary placenta
-surrounding band
-provides nourishment
-burrows into endometrium and receives blood from the uterine artery
-marginal haematoma = haemorrhage into uterine endothelium during implantation
-this haematoma breaks down during parturition
-green discharge in bitch
-brown discharge in queen
Feeding a pregnant bitch
- a good quality, well balanced commercial diet is recommended
- by the 5th week, feeding amounts should increase
- by the late stages of pregnancy, food intake will increase by 20-25%
- meals should be split into smaller portions
- fat and protein should be increased; an activity or puppy diet would be suitable
-supplements should be avoided; unless advised by a VS
What is the calculation for RER?
(BW X 30) +70
Energy requirements for pregnancy and lactation (bitch)
Pregnancy = first 2/3 = 1.8 X RER
Pregnancy = last 1/3 = 3.0 X RER
Lactation = (1.9 X RER) + 25% per pups
Worming and vaccination bitch when mating
Worming = advise to worm before mating and again after parturition. Varies on medication so speak to VS
Vaccination = before mating to ensure adequate levels for antibodies are transferred to foetuses during pregnancy and lactation
Feeding a pregnant queen
A good quality commercial diet
Food intake to be gradually increased from 3rd week of pregnancy
Protein to be increased in later stages
Supplementation isn’t required
By late stages of pregnancy food intake should increase by 50%
RER requirements for a pregnant queen
Early = 1.6 X RER
At parturition = 2.0 X RER
Lactation = 2.0-6.0 X RER
Exercise for pregnant queen
Extra stimulation may be needed however, queens usually provide themselves with sufficient exercise
Worming and vaccination of queen during mating
Worming = before and during pregnancy
Vaccination = before mating, allows antibodies to be passed onto offspring
Hormonal controls
Prolactin = stimulates formation of milk from mammary glands
Oestrogen = prepares and contributes to the growth and development of mammary tissue and prepares the uterus for parturition
Oxytocin = initiates strong contractions and causes milk to be released from mammary glands when neonates suckle
Relaxin = placenta produced hormone which causes cervix to relax
How to aid an owner with preparing a bitch for partition
Accommodation:
-prefer to give birth at night
-1 week before due move her to whelping area, allows her to adjust to new smells and routine.
-cardboard box/pre-made whelping box
Early signs of parturition:
-restless
-burrowing in bedding and nesting
-drop in rectal temp from 39 to 37
-refuse to eat
-panting
-o notices external contractions
-greenish/blackish discharge present - time must be noted; 1st pups should arrive within 2 hrs of this
Do’s and Dont’s
-give privacy
-don’t get too involved unless needed
-keep a note of key signs and times
-if concerned call a vet
-keep calm, carry out regular checks from a distance
Recognising dystocia
Struggling to give birth
-if a bitch is over 70 days and a queen over 65 days with no signs of parturition
-dam unsettled, forceful but infrequent straining
-straining starts and stops without young born
-black or green discharge but no signs of parturition
-ineffectual straining for an hour
-several born but a gap of more than 2 hrs with more expected
Caesarean section
Provide adequate oxygen
Prevent hypotension
Reduce doses of anaesthetic drugs
Clip before induction - no premed
Risks:
Uterine rupture and haemorrhage
Wound infection and breakdown
Dam does not accept litter
Anaesthetic risk to dam and pups
Post-partum
-offer normal food across 5-6 meals
-remain on 5-6 meals for the first few weeks
-first 2 weeks dam will spend time with her litter
-once weaning takes place dam can have longer periods away
-at weaning reduce dams food
-monitor pups for suckling
Define neonate
Period from birth through to 3 weeks of age or when a puppy or kitten is walking and capable of spontaneous urination and defecation
Neonatal kittens and puppies
-unable to stand at birth but can crawl
-stand from 10 days
-walk at 3 weeks
-born with eyes closed,usually open around 10-14 days
-cornea appears cloudy until 4 weeks
-kittens can be born with strabismus (can persist until around 8 weeks of age )
-dam simulates perineal region for the first 2-3 weeks to allow defecation and urination
When animals are born
-establish airway
- cut umbilicus
- keep warm until active
-encourage feeding and feed colostrum asap
Fading puppy/kitten syndrome
Die when under 1-2 weeks of age
Multifactoral causes
Septicaemia
-Colostrum (provides passive immunity) only absorbed via the gut in the first 48hrs
-high mortality
Viral infection in neonates
Not common if dam vaccinated
-canine herpes virus
-FIV/FELV
-feline coronavirus
-feline panleukopenia virus
Congenital abnormalities in neonates
Cleft palate
Hernia
Hydrocephalus
Weaning puppies/kittens
From >2.5 weeks
Complete >5 weeks
Monitor for continued weight gain
Slowly introduce food (some mix with water to make a paste to start of with)
Rabbits and hand rearing
-altricial (not developed)
-minimal disturbance - only for food and cleaning
-Kits suckle for 3-5 mins at the time and only 1-2 times in 24hrs
-dependant on does milk for 3weeks
-start solids between 2-3 weeks old
-weigh at 2-3 weeks old
-weaning at 6 weeks old
-kits need > Vit D and calcium vs adults
Hand rearing:
-death from enterotoxaemia is common
-transfaunation of gut flora from healthy parasite free adult
-use kitten milk replacers or 1-part full fat cows milk: 3parts condensed milk
-offer adult/weaning formulated dry foods from 2 weeks and attempt weaning from 3 weeks
Guinea pigs neonates
Precocial young
Eat some solids within 24hrs
If hand rearing = 1 part condensed milk : 2 parts cooled boiled water
Foetus development stages
- Ovary releases an ovum
- Sperm travels to the ovum which is in the fallopian tube
- The ovum is fertilised and divides into 2 cells - this takes 96 hours
- 20 hours later it divides into 4 cells
5.144 hours later it divides into 8 cells - 192 hours later it divides into a call of cells called the morula
- This is a total of 8-9 days by then the morula has moved towards the uterus
Define ectoderm
Outer layer
Will form the skin and nervous system
Define mesoderm
Middle layer
Will form several organs and the musculoskeletal system
Define endoderm
Inner layer
Will form the lining of the GI tract and other visceral organs
Zonary placenta
-surrounding band
-provides nourishment
-burrows into endometrium and receives blood from the uterine artery
-marginal haematoma = haemorrhage into uterine endothelium during implantation
-this haematoma breaks down during parturition
(Green discharge in the bitch)
(Brown discharge in the queen)
What does prolactin do
Stimulates formation of milk from the mammary glands
What does oestrogen do
Prepares and contributes to the growth and development of mammary tissue and prepares the uterus for parturition
What does oxytocin do
Initiates strong contractions and causes milk to be released from mammary glands when neonates suckle
What does relaxin do
Placenta produced hormone which causes cervix to relax
Parturition
Stage 1
Variable in duration
Often depends on the experience of the bitch
On average lasts 1-2hrs
Parturition
Stage 2
Cervix dilates
Contractions are more obvious
Noticeable straining
Time onset between straining and first foetus = 10-30mins
Uterine contractions increase in intensity
Onset abdominal contractions and propulsion of first foetus to be pushed through cervix into vagina
Puppy will appear, usually still surrounded by a thin but though membrane (amnion)
Sac is broken by dam as she licks pup to stimulate respiration - may need help in some cases
Parturition
Stage 3
Foetal membranes and placenta pass
Bitch may eat placenta
Dark green discharge may be seen following parturition
May happen for up to a week - considered normal
Parturition
Stage 4 (puerperium)
Reproductive tract returns to its normal state
Bitch should be checked to ensure she’s recovered
Offer her a small amount of food and water
Take her to the toilet
Clean whelping area
Interference should be minimal
Weigh puppies and check for abnormalities
