VNSA4 Flashcards

1
Q

What is welfare ?

A

The physical and mental state of an animal in relation to the conditions in which it lives and dies

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2
Q

how can you measure welfare by physiological factors?

A
  • heart rate and rhythm
  • pulse rate and rhythm
  • respiratory rate and rhythm
  • blood pressure rate
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3
Q

What is stress?

A
  • A survival adaption
  • Increases the amount of oxygen and glucose to the vital organs and muscles
  • Fight and flight response
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4
Q

What signs may you see if an animal is suffering from stress?

A

Internal factors:
-tachycardia
-tachypnoea
-hyperthermia
Hypertension

Physiological factors:
-ears back
-teeth showing
-body posture tense and weight forward or back
-growling/hissing
-dilated pupils and showing the white

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5
Q

What is preference testing? And what problems may it cause ?

A
  • a number of options are offered to an animal and they select their preferred option.

Problems:
-you may get different preferences with different measures
-effects of experience, may prefer what is familiar
-handler bias

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6
Q

What problems come with behavioural observation?

A
  • straightforward for overt behaviours like aggression

-more difficult to validate for more subtle measures

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7
Q

Animal Welfare Act 2006
What are the 5 freedoms ?

A
  1. Freedom from hunger and thirst
  2. Freedom from discomfort
  3. Freedom from pain injury or disease
  4. Freedom to express normal behaviour
  5. Freedom from fear and distress.
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8
Q

DEFRA
Department for environment, food and rural affairs

What is involved within this legislation?

A

-transporting animals
-microchipping
-report notifiable diseases
-farm welfare
-produce welfare codes of practice

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9
Q

APHA
Animal and plant health agency

What is involved within this legislation?

A

Safeguard animal and plant health for the benefit of people, the environment and the economy.

Identifying and controlling endemic and exotic diseases and pests in animals, plants and bees.

Surveillance of new and emerging pests and diseases.

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10
Q

What is involved within the pet travel scheme?

A

Allowing owners to take their dogs, cats and ferrets to counties within the EU.

Stages needed to follow the scheme:
-has been microchipped
-has a pet passport or pet health certificate
-has been vaccinated against rabies
-specific counties require a tapeworm tablet

The Animal health certificate must be done within 10 days of travel
Rabies vac must be done within 21 days of travel.

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11
Q

How does PETS maintain animal welfare

A

-prevents spread of diseases

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12
Q

Veterinary Surgeons Act 1966

A

Regulates members of the veterinary profession.

Contributes to animal welfare by ensuring only a qualified member of staff can practice.

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13
Q

How does the RSPCA protect welfare

Royal Society for the protection of cruelty to animals

A
  • pushes for changes in the law to improve the welfare of animals

-through investigations and prosecutions they rescue animals who suffered deliberate harm.

-rescue, rehabilitate, rehome or release

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14
Q

How does the RSPB protect animal welfare?

A

-Protect habitats, save species and help to end the nature and climate emergency.

-carry out conservation work

-5 main work areas are:
1. Science
2.species
3.places
4.people
5.policy

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15
Q

Introducing new animal stock.

A
  1. Method
  2. Quarantine
    3.minimising stress
    4.individual
    5.Group dynamics
    6.timing
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16
Q

Name equipment used for handling

A

-basket
-collar
-lead
-crush cage
-bag
-nets
-dog catcher
-snake hook
-grasper
-gauntlets
-muzzles
-harness
-noose
-tape muzzle
-towels
-goads
-gloves
-goggles
-apron
-hood, wild birds
-holding pen

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17
Q

When looking at an animal how can you read body language ?

A

Body - tense, relaxed, arched back

Tail - wagging, upright, between legs, straight out

Ears - relaxed, pricked, flat

Eyes - pupils dilated, avoiding eye contact, squinting, wide eyed

Vocalisation - barking, growling, purring, hissing

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18
Q

Body language of a dog

A

Friendly; relaxed body posture, wagging tail, weight distributed.

Pain; tense, tail down, whimpering, grumpy, lameness

Anxious; standing, head and body posture kept low, tail tucked, ears back

Aggressive; stiffened body posture, weight forward, ears up, teeth exposed

Depressed; hunched, no interest in surroundings

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19
Q

Body language of a cat

A

Friendly; relaxed body, ears in natural position, tail held out loosely, body stretched

Pain; let her gain, hiding, pupils dilated

Anxious; hidden away, tense, tail tucked, ears sideways, pupils dilated

Aggressive; arched posture, hair raised, tense, paw ready to swipe, hissing, pupils dilated, mouth open

Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings

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20
Q

Body language of a rabbit

A

Friendly; lying down, extended out, relaxed body, jumping around

Pain; teeth grinding, doesn’t want to be touched, not eating

Anxious; hiding, crouched, tense, ears wide apart, eyes

Aggressive; tense, raised tail, mouth open, visible teeth, pupils dilated

Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings

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21
Q

Body language of a rodent

A

Friendly; relaxed body

Pain; may hide away, may be aggressive

Anxious; hide away, may vocalise

Aggressive; vocalising, forward behaviour, defensive behaviour

Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings

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22
Q

Body language in birds

A

Friendly; relaxed, wings not tense, engaged with environment

Pain; hides it well, protect themselves

Anxious; may be quiet or may vocalise, overstimulated by surroundings

Aggressive; dependant on species - vocalising, change in plumage, head bobbing

Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings

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23
Q

Body language in exotics

A

Friendly; relaxed

Pain; not obvious

Anxious; not obvious (similar to aggression)

Aggression; colour changes, head bobbing or shaking, tail whip, flat body, S bend in snakes, hissing in chelonians

Depressed; hunched and no interest in surroundings

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24
Q

Signs of stress in a dog

A

-yawning
-aggression
-shaking/trembling
-panting
-sweaty paws
-dilated pupils
-excessive barking
-drooling
-hiding
-licking/scratching

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25
Signs of stress in a cat
-aggression -hiding -dilated pupils -sweaty paws -open mouth breathing. -anorexia -over eating -over grooming -under grooming -house soiling -urine marking -vocalisation -appearing withdrawn -running away
26
Restraining dogs
-collar or harness and lead -halti -slip lead -muzzle -Mikki or tape -wrapped towel -rolled towel (brachycephalics) -dog catcher
27
Restraining cats
-muzzle -towel -gauntlets -cat grasper -cat bag -don’t scruff unless necessary
28
Restraining rabbits
Most are docile A struggling rabbit may lash out with its hind legs and fracture or dislocate its spine Severe stress can induce cardiac arrest Transport by holding them close to your chest Do not trance
29
Restraining rodents
- scruffing may be appropriate -cup in hand -may use towels if larger (Rats - encircle the pectoral girdle behind the forelimbs, support their weight with the other hand) (Mice - grasp the tail near to the base and place on a non slip surface. With the other hand the mouse can be grasped at the scruff between the thumb and the forefingers allowing the mouse to be turned. Never grab the tip of the tail)
30
Restraining guinea pigs
Minimal noises and dim lighting to catch them Grasp behind the front limbs from the dorsal aspect, support their weight with the other hand.
31
Restraining chinchillas and degus
Easily stressed restrict noise and dim the lights to catch them Grasp behind the front limbs form the dorsal aspect, support their weight with the other hand. Do not scruff chinchillas (results in fur loss)
32
Restraining ferrets
Grasp from the dorsal aspect, just behind the front legs, using the thumb and forefinger. For livelier individuals, place the thumb under the chin, pushing the jaw upwards and the rest of the fingers grasping the other side of the neck, support the rear limbs with the other hand. For aggressive ferrets a firm hold of the scruff may be necessary
33
Restraining birds
Use a quiet darkened room Remove all toys and perches Pick up gently and hold wings into the body Don’t restrict respiration Use towels to match the size of the bird Birds of prey can use a hood.
34
Restraining Reptiles
Snakes - pick up gently from the widest part and support them. Use the hook if needed. If over 2.5m two people must hold. Lizards - picked up around the pectoral girdle. Terrapins - carry salmonella so basic hygiene required. Bite hard. Tortoises - friendly, don’t trap finger between leg and shell
35
Define aggression
Aggression is defined as threats or harmful actions directed toward another individual and can include threat displays. Lunging, growling, snarling and biting. In animals aggression is a form of communication.
36
Ladder of aggression for dogs
1. Yawning, blinking, nose licking 2. Turning head away 3. Turning body away, sitting, pawing 4. Walking away 5. Creeping ears back 6. standing crouched, tail tucked under 7. Lying down, leg up 8. Stiffening up, staring 9. Growling 10. Snapping 11. biting
37
When moving a patient in practice or giving a client advice on travel it is important to consider:
-size of the animal -nature of injury -number of staff available -behaviour of the patient -the environment -methods of restraint
38
Travelling by air
Most airlines dont allow animals to travel with their owners in the cabin, instead they travel in a heated and pressurised area of the hold. The International Air Transport Association Standards require their container to be large enough to stand up in and turn around with ease and have strict regulations. Clients should be advised to contact DEFRA for info regarding entry requirements to their destination. Travelling can be an issue for reptiles due to their inability to regulate body temp. Expert Reptile shipping experts should be used.
39
Feeding inpatients
Consider: -species -breed -life stage -health status Fresh water should be freely available.
40
Health, hygiene and safety considerations
-PPE and hand washing -access to patients (limited to authorised personnel) -security -emergency procedures -evacuation procedures -strict hygiene essential -using appropriate cleaning agents -pests not able access area -waste disposal in accordance to local authorities -waste carrier licensed with environmental agency
41
Heating in the practice
-proving warmth and comfort -removing damp and condensation -reduces the risk of respiratory infection Types - central heating, electric fan heater, air on, underfloor heating, portable radiators
42
Lighting in the practice/within kennels
Should be as natural as poss Mimic their natural environment as closely as poss
43
Ventilation in the practice
Reduces damp, noxious gases and droughts Reduces incidence of respiratory disease Minimum changes of air per hour is 4-8
44
Structure of the kennels
-solid -cleaned and disinfected -secure and escape proof -appropriate to species and condition
45
Size of kennels
Adequate size to allow animals to: -feed -sleep sit and stand -lie with limbs extended -stretch and move around -use a litter tray
46
The RCVS states that inpatient facilities should be :
-suitable size -securable -sturdy -escape proof -without potential injurious faults -easily cleanable
47
What are the benefits of grooming ?
-helps them if they cant do it themselves -bonding and can help get the animal used to being touched -checks animals over (may find lumps, painful areas or parasites)
48
Types of coats
Double coat - long topcoat and thick undercoat (eg, GSD) Smooth coat - short, thin coat (eg, Dalmatian/boxer) Wire coat - harsh topcoat and thick undercoat (eg, border terrier) Wool coat (eg, poodle) Silky coat - fine textured topcoat (eg, afghan hound)
49
Types of brushes
Bristle brush - remove loose hair and dander, stimulate the skin (use on short coated and silky coats) Pin brush - separates the top and undercoat, removes matts and tangles ( use on double coated breeds and long haired cats) Comb - loosening matted hair, parasites (long haired animals) Zoom groom - massage skin, stimulating capillaries (use on dogs and cats) Slicker brush - go through coat and avoids skin (use on any animal) Rake/furminator - remove undercoat and loose hair without damaging top coat (breeds and species that shed)
50
Vaccinations
An attenuated version of the antigen is administered, inducing an immune response, meaning that it is then recognised if exposed again and mounts a rapid immune response.
51
What is a passive vaccination?
Containing antibodies to a specific toxin -antitoxins -antiserum -maternally derived antibodies
52
What is an active vaccination?
Stimulates the immune system to specific pathogens, inducing an immunological ‘memory’ -live vaccine -inactive due or killed -adjuvants -live vaccines are usually more affective
53
Canine vaccination
Protection against - distemper, hepatitis, parvovirus, leptospirosis and para influenza. 1st vacc - recommend to start at 8wks Puppies can be given from 6wks if required 2nd vacc - same vac given 3-4 wks after and be at least 9wks of age. Kennel cough is recommended to be given too. Booster vaccination every year. (Full vac - VersicanDHppi/L4 repeated every 3 years) (For years in between a part vaccination VersicanPi/L4 to be given)
54
Feline vaccination
Protect against - feline enteritis, rhinotracheitis and calicivirus. A separate vaccination is given for feline leukaemia is given at the same time. Feline leukaemia is given on a 3 yearly basis in most cases - some owners wish not to have it. 1st vacc - given from 9wks of age (versifel CVR and FeLV used) 2nd vacc - Versifel CVR and FeLV used again 3-4 weeks after the first. Onset of immunity is 3 weeks from the 2nd vac. Yearly booster - use Versifel CVR and FeLV is given every 3 years provided they’ve had their primary jab.
55
Rabbit vaccine
Protected against - myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease From 5 weeks old 2 course vacc Booster yearly
56
Parasite control
Must be: -regular -species appropriate -life stage appropriate -health status appropriate -include endoparasite and ectoparasite treatment -route of administration
57
Rabbit dental hygiene
Their teeth continually grow. Their natural high fibre diet will grind these down, and the correct calcium:phosphorous ratio of the diet will ensure that they are of appropriate strength. When not fed on this diet issues can occur and they overgrow, developing spikes that push into the tongue or cheeks causing pain.
58
Normal appearance of eyes
-Bilaterally symmetrical (size and position) -Discharge free -pupils constrict in presence of bright light -third eyelid is usually not visible
59
Checking ears
-examine for scratches, wounds and swellings -examine vertical canal for inflammation, wax, purulent discharge, foreign bodies and parasites -view tympanic membrane to check intact
60
Checks for oral cavity
-Check: tongue, teeth and palate -can the jaw be opened without pain? -look for misalignment
61
Where can you assess mucous membranes ?
Mouth, eyes, genitalia, anal region Normal is salmon pink
62
Capillary refill time (CRT)
CRT in 2 secs Prolonged CRT - poor perfusion, dehydration or shock Fast CRT - sepsis or fever
63
Appearance of external nares
Normal - moist, no discharge, patent air flow through both nostrils Cats and rabbits are obligate nasal breathers, mouth breathing indicates severe respiratory compromise
64
External genitalia appearance and discharge colours
Check for any swelling or abnormalities Blood-stained discharge - normal reproductive cycle Purulent discharge - pyometra Green discharge in bitch - postpartum infection Brown discharge - imminent parturition
65
Normal and abnormal indicators - Muscle wastage
Think: Is it symmetrical ? Usually normal but could be abnormal Anything asymmetrical is abnormal.
66
Overall appearance of condition
Coat quality (alopecia could be a sign of endocrine disease) Examine skin for dryness, scaliness, greasiness and evidence of parasites Evaluation of skin elasticity can indicate hydration status
67
What can abnormal head posture mean?
-vestibular syndrome -middle ear disease -encephalitozoon cuniculi - protozoan (condition in rabbits)
68
Normal and abnormal indicators - Mobility in animals
Can they move freely Any signs of pain Range of movement (flexion, extension and rotation) Look at their gait Proprioception tests to evaluate neurological function Joints Gently palpate for signs of discomfort, swelling and crepitus Muscles Claws and pads (frayed/torn nails may indicate RTA)
69
Lymph node position
Palpate for evidence of enlargement Lymphadenopathies - diseases of the lymph nodes Enlarged nodes may indicate infection or neoplasia which could be systemic or localised
70
Normal and abnormal indicators - Thorax
Respiratory rate and effort (is it normal or how does it compare) Vertebrate and rib cage (body condition score) Auscultation (heartbeat normal/abnormal/rhythm) Lungs normal (abnormal crackles or rales indicating pathology such as pneumonia or bronchitis)
71
Normal and abnormal indicators - Abdomen
Visual for distension Possibilities - ascitic fluid, haemorrhage, gas in stomach, pregnant uterus, pyometra or bladder) Palpitation - gentle, internal structures can be located, abnormalities detected, can be difficult in obese or tense patients .
72
Normal and abnormal indicators - tail
Is there voluntary movement ? Autotomy (shedding of the tail in some lizards) If the tail is damaged, check for urinary function
73
Normal parameters in dogs?
Temp = 38.3 - 39.2 degrees Celsius Heart rate = 70 -140 bpm Respiratory rate = 10 - 30
74
Normal parameters in cats
Temp = 38.2 - 38.6 degrees Celsius Heart rate = 100 - 200 bpm Respiratory rate = 30 - 60
75
Normal parameters in rabbits
Temp = 38.5 - 40 degrees Celsius Heart rate = 130 - 325 bpm Respiratory rate = 30 - 60
76
What is the formula for finding out normal water intake?
50-60mls/kg/day Eg —> a 5kg cat has 50mls a day per kg 50 X 5 = 250mls over 24hrs 250mls divided 24 = 10.41 mls per hour (for fluids)
77
What is vomiting ?
- forceful evacuation of stomach contents via mouth -nausea, hypersalivation, retching, abdominal contraction
78
What is regurgitation ?
- passive movement of food or liquid into the mouth, without warning or signs
79
What species cannot vomit?
Hamsters, Rabbits and Guinea pigs Hamsters can expel contents of check pouches
80
What is normal urine production ?
1-2ml / kg/ hr
81
Normal and abnormal indicators - urine
Checked for: -smell -colour -turbidity -volume (Rabbit urine - plant pigments cause colour to vary from deep yellow to red) (Guinea pig and chinchilla urine is yellow and cloudy)
82
Normal and abnormal indicators - Defecation
‘Normal’ amount and characteristic vary massively according to species Check: -colour -smell -shape -consistency Rabbits produce cecotropes (Cecil pellets) which are eaten.
83
Pain recognition dogs
0 - comfortable, happy,content, non-tender 1 - content to slightly unsettled, distracted easily. Reacts to palpitation, looking around, whimpering. 2 - looks uncomfortable when resting, whimpering, not eager, flinches, cries, guards. 3 - unsettled, crying, groaning, biting, may be be subtle may be dramatic 4 - constantly groaning or screaming, crying, biting, potentially unresponsive
84
Pain recognition in cats
0 - content, quiet, comfortable, not bothered 1 - subtle signs, withdrawal, slightly unsettled 2 - seeks solitude, quiet, responds aggressively 3 - constant yowling, growling, reacting aggressively, avoids contact 4 - Prostrate, potentially unresponsive, may not respond to palpitation, may be rigid to avoid movement
85
Pain recognition in rabbits
- anorexia -reduced thirst - changes in gait -hunched -frozen appearance -teeth grinding -aggression -licking or rubbing site of pain -reduced interaction with environment
86
How can you identify an animal?
- photographs -ownership -markings/breed -microchip -injuries and markings from fights -collar and tag -tattoos
87
Animal characteristics that may help with identification?
- bark -ears -muzzle size -size of the dog -coat -markings -colour -behaviour and temperament
88
When is ear tip removal used ?
To indicate the neutered status in stray cats and dogs
89
What is the Control of Dogs Order 1992
- any dog in a public place must wear a collar with the name, address and postcode of the owner engraved on it or engraved onto a tag. A fine of up to £5000 for failing to comply.
90
What is a microchip?
A transducer containing a unique number which is accessed by a handheld reader, placed subcutaneously (S/C). It can migrate after placement. It is a small size no larger than a grain of rice.
91
What year did the law for microchipping change?
April 2016 Up to a £500 fine if the dog is not chipped. Must be done by 8 weeks. If they are too small an exemption certificate is required.
92
When did the law for microchipping cats change?
13th march 2023 All cats must be chipped by June 10th 2024 Must be done before the age of 20 weeks
93
Advantages of microchipping
- easy identification - definite -permanent -tamper proof -low cost -little pain -can be read from a distance
94
Disadvantages of microchipping
-invasive -invisible -can move/migrate -may require sedation -occasional abscess formation -detection requires a reader -not all readers read all chips
95
Tattooing animals
Ink marking numbers/letters Common positions - inside pinna or inside flank Can be seen in imported animals, animals used for racing or laboratory animals
96
Advantages of tattooing animals
- clear - permanent -little specialist equipment needed -cheap -very difficult to tamper with or erase
97
Disadvantages of tattooing animals
-painful -messy -not visible from a distance -liable to be irregular -many difficult to read accurately
98
Bands and rings - animal identification
-metal or plastic -can be colour coded -can have a number (eg racing pigeons, wild birds or valuable birds of prey) The animal should be fully grown, the band needs checking that it is not too tight causing injury or swelling. Bands can also get caught leading to injury.
99
Animal identification- ear tags
A legal requirement for farm animals Enables bio security
100
Animal identification - DNA
-DNA analysis can be used to identify individual animals -expensive and rarely done for pets (dogs and cats) -can be used to confirm parentage -DNA analysis also used to determine sex of birds
101
EU travel - PETS
You can no longer use a pet passport issued in Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland) for travel to an EU country or Northern Ireland. You can still use a pet passport issued in an EU country or Northern Ireland When travelling to an EU country or Northern Ireland your pet needs; -a microchip -a valid rabies vaccine -an animal health certificate (unless you have a pet passport issued in an EU country or Northern Ireland) -tapeworm treatment for dogs if you are travelling directly to Finland, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Norway or Malta These requirements also apply to assistance dogs.
102
Repeat travel to EU or Northern Ireland.
Your pet will need a new animal health certificate each time Your pet will not need a repeat rabies vaccinations as long as they are up to date. Dogs will need a tapeworm tablet if travelling directly to Finland, Ireland, Malta, Northern Ireland or Norway.
103
Rabies vaccinations for travel
Rabies vaccine - dog cat or ferret. Must be at least 12 weeks old. If you’re taking your pet to the EU or Northern Ireland you must wait 21 days after the primary vaccine before you travel. Microchip be done before or at the same time as their rabies vaccination. Vaccination must be inactivated or recombinant thats approved in the country of use.
104
Tapeworm treatments and boosters
Tapeworm treatment must be given no less than 24 hrs and no more than 5 days before you arrive. Treatment must be approved for use in the county it’s being given in Contain praziquantel or an equivalent Regular rabies booster vaccinations are required. Both must be recorded on the animal health certificate.
105
Travelling to a non EU country
Need an Export health certificate (EHC) and need to complete an export application form (EXA) if you’re in England, Scotland or Wales. An EHC checks that your pet meets the requirements of the country you’re travelling too. Must nominate an official vet who will be sent the EHC, they’ll check your pet has met the correct health and identification requirements before you travel.
106
What are the requirements for entering the uk?
-a microchip -rabies vaccination (after having a microchip) -travellers from EU and listed 3rd countries need to wait 21 days after primary rabies vaccination before travelling. -tapeworm tablet, no less than 24hrs and no more than 5 days. -blood test.
107
What is the youngest age a pet can come into the uk?
15 weeks
108
Welfare of Animals (Transport) 2006
-applies to people who transport live vertebrate animals inc farm livestock. 3 things you must do when transporting animals: -plan the journey and keep it as short as poss -check the animals during the journey (food, water, rest) -sufficient floor space and height Who enforces welfare during transport ? -APHA and the local council
109
What documents must you have to transport animals in the UK by road?
- a certificate off vehicle approval (for journeys over 8hrs) -a certificate of competence or to complete training for livestock, equines and poultry. -a journey log (imports, exports, transits of livestock and unregistered equines on journeys over 8hrs) -an animal transport certificate (for all journeys not covered by a journey log)
110
What are nutrients?
Nutrients are a metabolically useful component of food that helps to support life
111
What are the 6 essential nutrients ?
1.protein 2.fat 3.carbohydrate 4.minerals 5.water 6.vitamins
112
What are the 3 energy producing nutrients ?
Fat, proteins, carbohydrates
113
What are nutrients used for?
1. Structural component, growth, repair and reproduction 2. Metabolism 3. Transport 4. Temperature regulation 5. Energy supply
114
What is an essential nutrient ?
An absolute requirement. Cannot be synthesised by the body and must be provided within the diet If they are not present or levels are low the diet is inadequate Each essential nutrient has a specific function within the body
115
What are the functions of water ?
1. Electrolyte balance 2. Temperature regulation 3. Removal of waste 4. Helps digestion of food 5. Its a transport medium for nutrients 6. Required for some chemical reactions in the body 7. A major component of blood and lymph
116
What is the water maintenance requirement for a dog or cat?
50-60ml/kg/24hr
117
What is the formula for fluid maintenance?
Min - 50 X BW = over a day Over a day divided by 24 = hourly rate Max - 60 X BW = over a day Over a day divided by 24 = hourly rate
118
Normal urinary loss ?
20ml/kg/day
119
Normal faecal loss?
10-20ml/kg/day
120
Insensible loss per day?
20ml/kg/day
121
What is the water requirement for rabbits and small mammals ?
75-100ml/kg/day
122
What is the water requirement for birds?
2ml/kg/hour 48ml/kg/day
123
What is the water requirement for reptiles?
10-30ml/kg/day
124
What are macronutrients?
Nutrients we need in larger quantities Provide us with energy Measured in kilocalories (Kcal)
125
What are proteins?
Proteins are large complex molecules composed of long chains of amino acids bound together by peptide linkages.
126
Amino acids joined together are called ?
Peptides
127
What are 2 peptides called ?
Dipeptide
128
What are 3 peptides called ?
Tripeptide
129
What are more than 3 peptides called ?
Polypeptide
130
How many amino acids are there ?
23. Most can be synthesised by the animals body. Others need to be provided within the diet as the body cant synthesise them - known as essential amino acids.
131
How many essential amino acids do dogs have?
10
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How many essential amino acids do cats have?
11
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Define complete proteins
Contain ample amounts of essential amino acids and are found in food such as meat/fish/eggs
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Define incomplete proteins
Do not provide all essential amino acids and are found in many foods including veg/grains/legumes
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What is biological value (BV) defined as?
The quality of protein
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What does the quality of protein depend on?
- the amount and number of essential amino acids -how digestible the protein is -how palatable or acceptable is the protein to the animal -how easily can the body utilise the protein
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What are the functions of dietary protein ?
-tissue growth and repair -manufacture of hormones and enzymes -source of energy -protection against infections -transport of oxygen -regulation of metabolism -structural role in cell walls -increased requirement: growth, lactation, pregnancy, tissue repair post-surgery etc.
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What happens if more protein is consumed than required?
Cannot be stored so the liver converts the amino part to urea and excretes it via the kidneys. The acid part is converted to glycogen or fat and stored as adipose tissue
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Consequences of excessive dietary protein are?
Detrimental to health of older animals May speed growth May be a causal factor in the development of orthopaedic problems in young and large canine breeds
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Consequences of inadequate dietary protein are?
Poor growth Weight loss Dull coat Muscle atrophy Increased susceptibility to disease Anaemia Infertility Oedema Emaciation
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What is the most common form of dietary fat?
Triglycerides Consist of 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids
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What do fatty acids vary on?
Length Presence and number of double bonds Location of the first double bond
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What can fatty acids be?
Saturated - no double bonds in the hydrogen chain Monosaturated - one double bond Polyunsaturated- more than one double bond They determine the physical and nutritional characteristics of the lipid
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What are the function of fats ?
-provision and storage of energy -aids absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) -insulation -metabolic and structural functions -synthesis of hormones -taste -source of essential fatty acids (EFA’s - linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic)
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What is arachidonic acid?
An omega 6 found in animal fats, poultry skin and beef fat (Obligate carnivores- cats must have this in their diet)
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What is linoleic acid?
An omega 6 sourced from vegetable oils
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What is linolenic acid ?
An omega 3 found in fish oil Omega 3 EFA have anti-inflammatory actions.
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What is carbohydrates made up of?
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
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What is the primary function of carbohydrates ?
An energy source (3.5kcal/gram) May also be converted to glycogen or fat and stored
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What are carbohydrates used for?
Synthesis of other essential body compounds such as RNA and DNA Source of fibre Source of energy
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Monosaccharides are made up of
Glucose , fructose (simple sugars) Glucose is the primary form of carbohydrate for energy - circulates in the bloodstream.
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Disaccharides are made up of
Maltose, sucrose, lactose Digestion of disaccharides is controlled by specific enzymes.
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Polysaccharides are made up of
Starch, glycogen and fibre (complex carbohydrates) Found widely
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What are the functions of dietary fibre ?
-increases bulk and water in the intestinal content -low energy content aids in the correction and prevention of obesity -regulation of intestinal gut transit time and bowel movements -maintenance of the structural integrity of the gut mucosa -therapeutic uses in the treatment of fibre responsive diseases -alteration of nutrient absorption and metabolism -to help maintain the health of the colon -Sources of soluble fibre can help regulate blood glucose - relevant in diabetic dogs
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What negative side effects can excessive dietary fibre cause?
- flactulence and boroygmi -increased bowel movements -increased faecal outputs -constipation due to the bulking effects (especially if low water intake)
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What are vitamins?
Essential for good health but don’t provide energy Split into 2 families - some are soluble in fat and some in water If excess fat-soluble vitamins are consumed they can build up in the body and become toxic, water soluble vitamins are passed out in urine.
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What is the function of vitamin A?
Vision and skin
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What is the function of Vitamin D?
Calcium and phosphorus metabolism
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What is the function of Vitamin E?
Antioxidant
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What is the function of Vitamin K?
Blood clotting
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What are minerals ?
Naturally occurring inorganic elements in a food. Often referred to as ash on pet food labels More than 18 minerals are essential
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What are macro/major minerals?
Required in diet in larger amounts -calcium and phosphorus -sodium and potassium chloride -magnesium
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What are micro/trace minerals ?
Required in much smaller amounts (Iron, zinc, copper, maganese, iodine, selenium)
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What are electrolytes ?
Minerals in salt form found in the body tissues and fluids
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What is balanced nutrition important for?
-energy production -temperature regulation -structure (skeleton, muscles and organs) -storage -waterproofing -insulation -growth and repair -reproduction -anabolism -catabolism
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How would you assess nutritional requirements ?
-assess current nutritional status -clinical history -physical examination -BCS -lab results -species variation
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What factors may affect nutritional requirements ?
-metabolic rate -feeding pattern -altered diet according to condition, disease, injury -altered digestion -bodily function -hospitalisation = change of exercise pattern and stress
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What conditions will affect the metabolic rate?
-thyroid -diabetic -post neuter
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Diabetes mellitus
-chronic endocrine disorder -results in an imbalance in metabolism of carbohydrate, fat and protein -if an animal has diabetes there diet should be at the same time each day, be the same quantity, and contain uniform ingredients -if there is other co-existing conditions they may take priority over managing diabetes -cats can go into remission if well controlled
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What is the nutritional profile of a patient with diabetes
Dogs: -low starch -devoid of simple sugars -high quality protein -high level of soluble and insoluble fibre Cats are not able to manage high carbohydrate diets as they don’t have amylase to break carbohydrate down.
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Hyperthyroidism
-an over production of hormones by the thyroid gland located at the front of neck. -causes a rapid heartbeat, sudden weight loss, tremor, difficulty sleeping and behavioural changes -body is kept constantly at an unnaturally high level of energy which places an enormous strain on the other systems.
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Diet for a patient with hyperthyroidism
Hills y/d -decreases thyroid hormone (T4) production in 3 weeks -supports kidney, heart and urinary health -visible improvement in skin and coat -helps maintain lean muscle mass S+OXSHEILD -formulated to promote a urinary environment that reduces the risk of developing structure and calcium oxide crystals -limited iodine -controlled phosphorus and low sodium and enriched with omega-3 fatty acids -omega-6 fatty acids to promote a healthy skin and coat -high levels of L-carnitine to support healthy body condition -must be fed this as a sole diet to work - no treats or hunting allowed
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Obesity
-in young there is an increase in fat cell numbers: hyperplasia, the animal will be predisposed to obesity -in adults there is an increase in fat cell size: hypertrophy -obese dogs live 2 years kess then idea weight dogs
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Orthopaedic disease
Nutrition is a key role in early life and a poor diet prior to growth plate closure especially in large and giant breeds may dispose to (canine hip displaysia, osteochondrosis) Excess energy provision can cause rapid skeleton growth which can lead to orthopaedic disease via increased biomechanical stress Excess dietary calcium disrupts the endochondral ossification. Calcium to phosphorus ration 1:2:1 Recommend -appropriate diet for life stage -puppy food for pregnant mum -no calcium supplement for mum or pups
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Heart diseases
Taurine and L-carnitine are implicated with the development of cardiomyopathy in cats and dogs. Both are required to metabolise fatty acids. Taurine deficiency-included dilated cardiomyopathy in both dogs and cats L-cartilage is suspected to be indicative of cardiomyopathy in boxers
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Congestive heart failure
Dietary management: -restricted sodium content -antioxidants -increased levels of taurine and L-carnitine -omega 3 fatty acids -high digestibility -care with treats as often high in sodium
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Renal disease
-chronic renal failure (CRF) -progressive disease -common in senior cats -damage is irreversible -clinical signs : show when up to 75% of kidney function is lost -loss of function is associated with the accumulation of toxic protein catabolites and the failure to excrete phosphorus
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Dietary management for renal disease
-restricted protein to reduce nitrogenous waste -highly digestible and high biological value protein -renal diets - specially formulated to prevent protein malnutrition -restrict phosphorus (phosphorus binders) -Control sodium and chloride -potassium supplements -enhanced B-complex vitamins -omega 3 fatty acids -palatabiltiy
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Hepatic disease
Liver functions may be affected The liver can regenerate and nutritional support can support the liver to delay or prevent irreversible damage Diet must have: Moderate levels of high quality protein High L-carnitine and L-arginine Appropriate levels of zinc and low copper Reduces liver workload and helps to regenerate Moderate to high fat levels increase energy density and reduces protein catabolism Added vitamins help avoid nutrient deficiencies commonly related to liver issues Copper toxicity can occur in westies, terriers and Doberman. Results in copper accumulation in the liver Feed a diet low in copper and high in zinc as zinc reduces intestinal uptake of copper
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What is pancreatitis ?
Inflammation of the pancreas
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Pancreatic disease
May need nutritional intervention - feeding tube or parental nutrition Low to medium fat diet Obesity is a risk factor so once recovered a weight loss diet may be needed
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Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
Unable to digest fats, carbohydrates and proteins Lack of pancreatic enzymes, common in young animals 1-2 years old and GSD Causes steatorrhea
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Dietary management of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
Low dietary fat Easily digestible diet Enhanced B complex vitamins Supplement with pancreatic enzymes Avoid high fibre
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What is vomiting ?
Forceful evacuation of stomach contents
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When a patient is vomiting what should you provide them?
-key nutrients = potassium, sodium and chloride -IVFT fluids -feed reduced fat food with highly digestible proteins If chronic - find out the cause and treat appropriately
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If a patient has diarrhoea how should you treat them?
-bland diet, digestible and low fat -never starve over 24hr -rehydrate and correct electrolyte imbalance -feed single/novel protein source to prevent acquired dietary allergies -highly digestible protein and carbohydrate diet If chronic: -high quality protein -low fat -enhanced B-complex vitamins
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What is idiopathic colitis and how do you treat it?
It is a type of chronic diarrhoea Symptoms = tenesmus and small volumes of mucous covered faeces Treatment = high digestible macro-nutrients to reduce digestive challenge Low antigen content (reduces chance of immunological reaction) Fibre responsive to slow the transit
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What is gastric dilation volvulus and the feeding management ?
Life threatening disorder often seen in deep chested dogs Profession of bloat into a volvulus - gas filled stomach twists upon itself making the entrance and exit of the stomach blocked. Requires urgent surgery Feeding management: -feed little and often -do not feed just before or after exercise -do not allow to drink big volumes of water -use a highly digestible meat based diet to encourage gastric emptying and reduce stomach distension
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Dietary insensitivity
Clinically abnormal response to the ingestion of a particular food item. A true food allergy or hypersensitivity is an immunological response caused by an antibody, immune complex or cell mediated response. Food intolerance may result from an inability to properly digest the food (non-immune). Adverse reactions manifest themselves as either skin or gastrointestinal disorders or both Dietary management: -novel single source protein source -hydrolysed diet -restricted carbohydrate -highly digestible macro - nutrients
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What are the top dietary allergens in dogs?
Chicken, beef, wheat, eggs
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What are the top dietary allergens in cats?
Poultry, fish, beef, lamb,dairy
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What is idiopathic cystitis and how is it treated ?
Cystitis of an unknown origin Can present as a ‘blocked cat’ - emergency Stress link which needs to be managed urgently More common in males Clinical signs may resolve in 5-7 days but may recur Not bacterial in origin so no antibiotics required Need to increase water intake - feed wet diet Encourage weight loss and increase activity Analgesia
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What is crystalluria and how is it treated ?
-presence of significant amounts of crystals within the urine -a few crystals can be normal or an artefact from storage -can cause blocked cat -causes = cystitis, haematuria and pain Diet management will depend on which crystals are present Increased water intake and wet diet
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Struvite and calcium oxide
More common in cats but can occur in dogs Diets acidify urine which helps to dissolve crystals/stones Diluting urine decreases the urinary concentration of struvite and calcium oxalate crystals Greater urinary volumes helps to flush the bladder out Diets contain higher sodium to encourage urination but can’t be fed to young/growing/pregant animals or those with CRF or heart disease Diets are low in magnesium
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Urate and cystine
Mainly affects dogs Needs to be surgically removed if large Diet alkalises the urine helping the stones to dissolve Moderate quantity of high quality proteins combined with restricted sodium reduces the development of cystine stones Low in purine proteins when combined with production of alkaline urine reduces the risk of urate stone formation
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What are purine proteins
Eggs Wheat Flour
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Define simple starvation
Absence of nutrition in healthy animals - causing it to utilise glycogen stores to meet energy requirements
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Define stress starvation
Metabolic response to trauma, inflammation or disease. Leads to catabolism of lean muscle mass and preservation of fat stores Especially pronounced in cats Sorting a suitable feeding regime asap is vital to recovery and prevention of complications
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Indication for nutritional support
Recent weight loss greater than 10% body weight Anorexic for longer than 3 days Severe underlying disease Large protein losses Muscle wasting, poor coat, poor wound healing Hypoalbuminaemia Hepatic lipidosis in cats Body condition below ideal (3)
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How can you support an animal nutritionally ?
Medication/ pain relief Warm food Clean away discharges - may encourage them to eat as feeling clean Dampen mucous membranes Force feeding (syringe) Feeding tubes (enteral feeding) Dietary requirements: -high fat -increased protein quality and quantity -enhanced vitamins and minerals -high digestibility and proteins
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What is genetics ?
Science of inheritance
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What are genes?
The basic unit of inheritance Information that determines characteristics are located and carried within genes
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What are chromosomes ?
Thread like structures Found in the nucleus Made up of protein and DNA
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What is the structure of of genes
In long chains known as chromosomes
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How many chromosomes does a dog have?
78 chromosomes 36 pairs
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How many chromosomes does a cat have?
38 chromosomes 19 pairs
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2 chromosomes are sex chromosomes known as X and Y what are the rest called?
Autosomes
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Chromosomes
Made up of protein and DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) which consists of 2 parallel unbranched strands twisting around each other in a double helix Strands are formed by 4 amino acids: Adenine - thymine Guanine - cytosine Known as base pairs
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Define diploid
Cells with the full number of chromosomes
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Define haploid
Contain only one copy of each chromosome
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What is a chromatid
A newly copied chromosome that is still joined to the original chromosome
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Homologous pairs
Homologous chromosomes are made up of chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, for genes with the same corresponding loci.
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Who is responsible for determining the sex of offspring
The male , they are heterogametic (XY chromosomes)
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What chromosomes does the female carry?
XX They are homogametic
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Define gene locus
Instructions for certain characteristics or traits are found at the same location on both chromosomes
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What are sex-linked genes?
Genes located on the sex chromosome
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What is a recessive gene ?
Alleles that are only expressed if there are 2 copies of it in a cell Represented with a lowercase letter
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What is a dominant gene ?
Genes that are expressed when only one copy is present and suppresses the other allele Represented using an uppercase letter
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What is co-dominant
If both alleles are expressed
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Define homozygous
If an animal has two identical alleles of a specific gene Eg - AA or aa
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Define heterozygous
If the two alleles of that gene differ from one another Eg - Aa
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Define genotype
Genetic makeup of an individual -this can only be accurately appreciated by examination of the DNA
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Define phenotype
-external appearance of an animal -this is influenced not only by genes but also by the environmental factors such as diet, disease and exercise Phenotype = genotype + environment
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What are lethal genes?
Incompatible with life, if an animal expresses a lethal gene it will die from the effects sooner or later. Usually recessive genes so the affected individual must be homozygous
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Define classic lethal
Affected individuals die in the uterus or shortly after birth
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Define delayed lethal
Affected individuals will die from a progressive condition later in life
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Define semi-lethal
These produce mild abnormalities that may not necessarily kill the animal
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Mutations
Random chance mutation = genetic change Chemical change or damage = radiation These changes pass onto the next generation If the mutation is harmful and kills the individual the gene will die out and not be passed on May produce an advantage and that would be passed onto the next generation though reproduction
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Mitosis
Cell division in which each dividing cell produces identical daughter cells, both contain the same amount of genetic material as the parent cell. Contains the diploid number of chromosomes Somatic cell: any cell except those involved in reproduction
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Meiosis
Cell division resulting in 4 daughter cells Each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell Each cell has the haploid number of chromosomes
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Mendels 1st law of inheritance
Each person has 2 genes that determine every characteristic. Mother has 2 genes for eye colour and father has 2 genes for eye colour But you only get 1 from each The law of segregation says that the one you get from each parent is random
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Mendels 2nd law of inheritance Independent assortment
The law of independent assortment Refers to the fact that any plant or animal contains many kinds of genes 1 gene determines flower colour, 1 gene determines stem length and 1 determines the shape of the pod Mendel discovered that the way alleles from different genes separate and then recombine is unconnected to other genes. That is reliant on a plant containing genes for colour (RR) and for the shape of pod (TT) then Mendels 2nd law says that 2 genes will segregate independently
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Mendels 3rd law Law of dominance
Some alleles of the same gene are dominant and others recessive. An organism only needs 1 copy of the dominant allele to display the effect of that allele.
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Who is Mendel ?
19th century Austrian monk who studied variation in plants
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Where is the pituitary gland located ?
Lays ventral to the hypothalamus in the forebrain ‘Master gland’
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What does the pituitary gland produce ?
Hormones Anterior / posterior (bi-lobed)
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Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Produced by the anterior pituitary Targets the leydig cells in males and stimulates the release of testosterone In females it targets the ovaries causing ovulation and development of the corpus luteum.
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Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Produced by the anterior pituitary Targets the Sertoli cells in males causing spermatogenesis In females it targets the ovaries, stimulating growth of the follicles which contain the ova
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Prolactin
Produced by the anterior pituitary Targets the mammary glands to stimulate development during pregnancy and milk let down during parturition
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Oxytocin
Produced by the posterior pituitary Targets the uterus during parturition causing contraction of the smooth muscle. It also acts on the muscles lining the mammary glands, resulting in milk let down.
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What is the oestrus cycle and what does it involve ?
- rhythmic cycle of events with only a limited time of sexual receptivity -also known as ‘oestrus’ Involves: -timing -female behavioural changes -reproductive tract must be ready and primed at the correct time
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What are the 3 different times of oestrus cycle ?
Mono-oestrus Polyoestrous Seasonally polyoestrus
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Define mono-oestrus
One oestrus cycle per breeding cycle
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Define polyoestrus
Multiple oestrus cycles throughout the year
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Define seasonally polyoestrus
Multiple oestrus cycles during a particular time of year
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What are the stages of oestrus
1. Pro-oestrus 2. Oestrus 3. Metoestrus 4.anoestrus - each cycle lasts a typical number of days in particular species
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Oestrus cycle of the bitch
-puberty starts at 6-23 months -most bitches have had their first oestrus by 12-14 months of age -have 1-2 cycles a year -each cycle ends with a spontaneous ovulation -the oestrus cycle is non seasonal -intervals vary from 5-13 months (average is 7 months) -polytocous (produces multiple offspring in each litter)
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Pro-oestrus in bitches
Length = 7-10 days Signs: -vulval swelling -pheromone release -increase in the thickness of the vaginal epithelium -serosanguinous (bloody) vulval discharge -more frequent urination with excitable/flirty behaviour Hormones: -increasing plasma concentrations of oestrogen -increasing oestrogen levels have negative feedback on FSH and LH release from anterior pituitary
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Oestrus in the bitch
Length = 7-10 days Signs: -stand to be mated -deviation of tail and presenting vulva to male -vulva remains enlarged -pale straw-coloured discharge Hormones: -surge in FSH and LH triggers ovulation -each egg ovulates from a follicle, leaving a corpus luteum which produces progesterone.
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Metoestrous (dioestrus) in bitches
Length = 2-3 months Signs: -vaginal discharge gradually dries up -swollen vulva shrinks -bitches behaviour returns to normal Hormones: -corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone -towards the end of metoestrus: -Prolactin released from pituitary gland - whether the bitch is pregnant or not and is the reason why false pregnancy is common in the bitch.
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Anoestrus in the bitch
Length = 5 months Signs: -period of quiescence -in non-pregnant bitches progesterone declines gradually and transition to anoestrus is smooth -no or very low hormonal activity -towards the end of this period some of the ovarian follicles begin to develop and secrete oestrogen and the cycle begins again This is the best time to neuter
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Oestrous cycle of the queen
First cycle is between 6-9 months on average (can come into season as early as 4 months) Photoperiod dependant - long day breeders Seasonally poly-oestrous (multiple oestrus cycles between Feb and Sept) No hormone activity during the winter Induced ovulators: induced by coitus
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Pro-oestrus in queen
Length = 2-3 days Signs: Follicular development (release of FSH and LH) Causes production of oestrogen Thickening of vaginal epithelium Attraction of the male - although at this stage the queen will not accept mating
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Oestrus in the queen
Length = 2-10 days Signs: Increasing concentrations of oestrogen Vocalisation - loud persistent yowling Rubbing against objects Threading hind feet Lateral deviation of tail Lordosis of spine Ovulation induced by mating
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Interoestus in the queen
Length = 3-14 days Signs: If queen is not mated or when mating does not result in ovulation: Signs of oestrous subside Queen becomes non receptive After this time (3-14 days) the queen returns to pro-oestrus
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Anoestrus in the queen
Autumn and winter No ovarian activity
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Pregnancy in the queen
Ovulation only occurs when the queen is mated Corpus luteum releases progesterone Progesterone maintains pregnancy Sterile mating - cat ovulates. Corpus luteum produces progesterone causing pseudopregnancy
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How do we know if animals are pregnant ?
Clinical signs Abdominal palpitation 3-4 weeks = small swelling 6-7 weeks = individual parts of foetuses Hormonal levels - relaxin levels are diagnostic of pregnancy Ultrasound: Commonly used Pregnancy diagnosis from day 16 after ovulation Optimum time is 28 days post mating Fetal heart beats can be seen Numbers can be seen but can be inaccurate- don’t tell owners Radiography: After day 45 when mineralisation of fetal skeleton is detected Unlikely damage to fetus but care with GA or sedation Numbers can be given when counting skulls
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What is pseudopregancy ?
Phantom pregnancy Common in the bitch Clinical signs: Weight gain Nesting behaviour Abdominal enlargement Mammary enlargement and lactation Exercise intolerant Adoption of imaginary puppies such as toys/slippers Anorexia Temperment change = grumpy Overprotective behaviors Treatment = waiting it out, remove all nests/toys/slippers and hormonal treatment
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Pseudopregnancy in the queen
Rare in the cat 1-2 months after oestrous Corpus luteum will produce progesterone as it would in pregnancy Can occur as a result of stimulation of vagina (collection of a vaginal spear) or perineum (self -induced) or spontaneously About 36-40 days after progesterone concentrations decline and the queen returns to cyclical activity There are rarely any clinical signs
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Misalliance
Bitch: Alizin - injectable solution used twice 24 hours apart to induce resorption/abortion Oestrogen compounds (oestrodiol benzoate) within 4 days of mating (brings on oestrus) Queen: Administer progestogens if the queen is still in oestrus Alternatively use aglepristone if she has ovulated Often queens are neutered
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When should mating occur between dogs?
Usually at the end of the 2nd week of the oestrus cycle when the red discharge has almost stopped
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Why is it normal for the female to be taken to the male for mating (dogs)?
For the male to feel more comfortable/confident
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What are the clinical signs that a bitch is ready to mate?
- standing oestrus, noted as the first day bitch will accept mating -vulval softening
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What hormones indicate that the bitch is ready to mate?
-LH -progesterone Not oestrogen as the plateau is not predictive of the timing of ovulation
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Anoestrus cytology
Only a few cells thick Cells are small and spherical ‘Parabasal cells’ Small number of neutrophils
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Proestrus cytology
Epithelial lining may be up to 6 cells thick Cells are slightly larger than the parabasal cells ‘Small intermediate cells’ Also see neutrophils, parabasal cells and erythrocytes
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Oestrus cytology
Epithelial layers increase to 12 layers thick Surface cells are now larger ‘Large intermediate cells’ Some are keratinised Some are anucleated Erythrocytes will be present in larger numbers but no WBC seen
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Metoestrus cytology
Epithelial tissue sloughed Cell numbers reduce Only small intermediate cells present Vacuoles have a ‘fomay’ appearance: AKA foam cells Very few erythrocytes Larger numbers of neutrophils
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Normal mating behaviour of the dog
-playful behaviour when first introduced -bitch will settle with her tail deviated to one side to allow mating 1. Mounting - dog may ejaculate a small amount of clear fluid either before or whilst trying to gain intermission (first fraction is to clear the urethra) 2.thrusting and intermission 3.erection - swelling of the bulb 4.ejaculation - release of 2nd fraction which is sperm rich fluid 5.dog turns 180° and dismounts whilst his penis remains inside the bitch (stand tail to tail) known as the ‘tie’ and is associated with the release of the 3rd fraction to flush sperm forwards through cervix to uterus 6.Break tie and dismount once the swelling of the bulbous gland subsides the tie will be broken.
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Problems with the bitch when mating
-attempt to mate too early in oestrus -inexperienced bitches may panic during intermission -rigid hymen (may be broken with a gloved finger) -swelling of the vaginal mucosa which prevents intromission -endocrinological (delayed purity, silent oestrus, failure to ovulate) -ovarian (cysts, tumors) -uterine (cystic endometrial hyperplasia , can progress into a pyometra)
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Problems with the dog when mating
Inexperienced Phimosis Absense of libido Back or hind limb problems -endocrinological (pituitary gland, small testes) -testicular (cryptorchid, monorchid, orchits, tumors) -accessory glands (prostate cysts, prostatis, tumours) -penile (phimosis, lymphoid hyperplasia)
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Normal mating in the cat
-queen should be taken to the stud -male will spray living area, queen moves in next door so they can get to know each other -once in together he will grab hold of her by the scruff with his teeth and mount her -pelvic thrusting, followed by penetration and ejaculation -queen will scream as he is withdrawing - aka the ‘coital yell’ (tomcats penis is covered in barbs) -she will the try to free herself and attack him -they then lay down, groom/clean themselves -after calming down mating is then repeated for the next 24hrs
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What is AI?
Artificial insemination A method of introducing semen, previously collected from a male and depositing it into a females vagina or uterus.
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What are the 3 different ways in which semen can be preserved prior to insemination?
Fresh Chilled Frozen
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What are the 3 fractions of male ejaculate
1st - clear fluid 2nd - sperm rich 3rd - clear fluid Only 2nd is used in AI
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Puberty ages
Bitch = 7-12 months Dog = 6-12 months Queen = 6-9 months (may start at 4 months) Tomcat = 8-12 months (could be 5 months)
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Gestation periods
Bitch = 9 weeks/63 days Queen = 9 weeks/63 days Rabbit = 29-35 days (average 31 days)
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Medically controlling the reproductive cycle in the bitch
-ovariohysterectomy -medical inhibition of oestrus cycle -induction of oestrus
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Medically controlling the reproductive cycle in the queen
-ovariohysterectomy -medical inhibition of oestrus cycle -induction of oestrus
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Rabbits sexual maturity
Female (does) at 4-5 months Males (bucks) at 5-8 months Females are ‘seasonally polyoestrus’ Females are induced ovulators -phantom pregnancy - 42 days post ovulation
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Guinea pig , reproductive
Sexual maturity = between 1.5 and 3 months of age Oestrus cycle interval 15-17 days (duration 6-11 hours) Pregnancy 59-72 days, 63 on average Spontaneous ovulation Piglets are precocial Sow should have her first litter before 8 months of age to prevent fusion of the pubic symphysis
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Foetal development steps
1. Ovary releases an ovum 2. Sperm travels to the ovum which is in the fallopian tube 3. The ovum is fertilised and divides into 2 cells - this takes 96 hrs 4. 20 hrs later it divides into 4 cells 5. 144 hrs later it divides into 8 cells 6. 192 hrs later it divides into a call of cells called the morula 7. This is a total of 8-9 days by then the morula has moved towards the uterus
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What layers does the morula formation break into?
Ectoderm - forms the skin and nervous system Mesoderm - forms several organs and the musculoskeletal system Endoderm - will form the lining of the GI tract and other visceral organs
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Zonary placenta
-surrounding band -provides nourishment -burrows into endometrium and receives blood from the uterine artery -marginal haematoma = haemorrhage into uterine endothelium during implantation -this haematoma breaks down during parturition -green discharge in bitch -brown discharge in queen
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Feeding a pregnant bitch
- a good quality, well balanced commercial diet is recommended - by the 5th week, feeding amounts should increase - by the late stages of pregnancy, food intake will increase by 20-25% - meals should be split into smaller portions - fat and protein should be increased; an activity or puppy diet would be suitable -supplements should be avoided; unless advised by a VS
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What is the calculation for RER?
(BW X 30) +70
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Energy requirements for pregnancy and lactation (bitch)
Pregnancy = first 2/3 = 1.8 X RER Pregnancy = last 1/3 = 3.0 X RER Lactation = (1.9 X RER) + 25% per pups
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Worming and vaccination bitch when mating
Worming = advise to worm before mating and again after parturition. Varies on medication so speak to VS Vaccination = before mating to ensure adequate levels for antibodies are transferred to foetuses during pregnancy and lactation
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Feeding a pregnant queen
A good quality commercial diet Food intake to be gradually increased from 3rd week of pregnancy Protein to be increased in later stages Supplementation isn’t required By late stages of pregnancy food intake should increase by 50%
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RER requirements for a pregnant queen
Early = 1.6 X RER At parturition = 2.0 X RER Lactation = 2.0-6.0 X RER
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Exercise for pregnant queen
Extra stimulation may be needed however, queens usually provide themselves with sufficient exercise
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Worming and vaccination of queen during mating
Worming = before and during pregnancy Vaccination = before mating, allows antibodies to be passed onto offspring
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Hormonal controls
Prolactin = stimulates formation of milk from mammary glands Oestrogen = prepares and contributes to the growth and development of mammary tissue and prepares the uterus for parturition Oxytocin = initiates strong contractions and causes milk to be released from mammary glands when neonates suckle Relaxin = placenta produced hormone which causes cervix to relax
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How to aid an owner with preparing a bitch for partition
Accommodation: -prefer to give birth at night -1 week before due move her to whelping area, allows her to adjust to new smells and routine. -cardboard box/pre-made whelping box Early signs of parturition: -restless -burrowing in bedding and nesting -drop in rectal temp from 39 to 37 -refuse to eat -panting -o notices external contractions -greenish/blackish discharge present - time must be noted; 1st pups should arrive within 2 hrs of this Do’s and Dont’s -give privacy -don’t get too involved unless needed -keep a note of key signs and times -if concerned call a vet -keep calm, carry out regular checks from a distance
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Recognising dystocia
Struggling to give birth -if a bitch is over 70 days and a queen over 65 days with no signs of parturition -dam unsettled, forceful but infrequent straining -straining starts and stops without young born -black or green discharge but no signs of parturition -ineffectual straining for an hour -several born but a gap of more than 2 hrs with more expected
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Caesarean section
Provide adequate oxygen Prevent hypotension Reduce doses of anaesthetic drugs Clip before induction - no premed Risks: Uterine rupture and haemorrhage Wound infection and breakdown Dam does not accept litter Anaesthetic risk to dam and pups
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Post-partum
-offer normal food across 5-6 meals -remain on 5-6 meals for the first few weeks -first 2 weeks dam will spend time with her litter -once weaning takes place dam can have longer periods away -at weaning reduce dams food -monitor pups for suckling
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Define neonate
Period from birth through to 3 weeks of age or when a puppy or kitten is walking and capable of spontaneous urination and defecation
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Neonatal kittens and puppies
-unable to stand at birth but can crawl -stand from 10 days -walk at 3 weeks -born with eyes closed,usually open around 10-14 days -cornea appears cloudy until 4 weeks -kittens can be born with strabismus (can persist until around 8 weeks of age ) -dam simulates perineal region for the first 2-3 weeks to allow defecation and urination
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When animals are born
-establish airway - cut umbilicus - keep warm until active -encourage feeding and feed colostrum asap
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Fading puppy/kitten syndrome
Die when under 1-2 weeks of age Multifactoral causes
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Septicaemia
-Colostrum (provides passive immunity) only absorbed via the gut in the first 48hrs -high mortality
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Viral infection in neonates
Not common if dam vaccinated -canine herpes virus -FIV/FELV -feline coronavirus -feline panleukopenia virus
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Congenital abnormalities in neonates
Cleft palate Hernia Hydrocephalus
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Weaning puppies/kittens
From >2.5 weeks Complete >5 weeks Monitor for continued weight gain Slowly introduce food (some mix with water to make a paste to start of with)
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Rabbits and hand rearing
-altricial (not developed) -minimal disturbance - only for food and cleaning -Kits suckle for 3-5 mins at the time and only 1-2 times in 24hrs -dependant on does milk for 3weeks -start solids between 2-3 weeks old -weigh at 2-3 weeks old -weaning at 6 weeks old -kits need > Vit D and calcium vs adults Hand rearing: -death from enterotoxaemia is common -transfaunation of gut flora from healthy parasite free adult -use kitten milk replacers or 1-part full fat cows milk: 3parts condensed milk -offer adult/weaning formulated dry foods from 2 weeks and attempt weaning from 3 weeks
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Guinea pigs neonates
Precocial young Eat some solids within 24hrs If hand rearing = 1 part condensed milk : 2 parts cooled boiled water
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Foetus development stages
1. Ovary releases an ovum 2. Sperm travels to the ovum which is in the fallopian tube 3. The ovum is fertilised and divides into 2 cells - this takes 96 hours 4. 20 hours later it divides into 4 cells 5.144 hours later it divides into 8 cells 6. 192 hours later it divides into a call of cells called the morula 7. This is a total of 8-9 days by then the morula has moved towards the uterus
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Define ectoderm
Outer layer Will form the skin and nervous system
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Define mesoderm
Middle layer Will form several organs and the musculoskeletal system
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Define endoderm
Inner layer Will form the lining of the GI tract and other visceral organs
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Zonary placenta
-surrounding band -provides nourishment -burrows into endometrium and receives blood from the uterine artery -marginal haematoma = haemorrhage into uterine endothelium during implantation -this haematoma breaks down during parturition (Green discharge in the bitch) (Brown discharge in the queen)
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What does prolactin do
Stimulates formation of milk from the mammary glands
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What does oestrogen do
Prepares and contributes to the growth and development of mammary tissue and prepares the uterus for parturition
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What does oxytocin do
Initiates strong contractions and causes milk to be released from mammary glands when neonates suckle
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What does relaxin do
Placenta produced hormone which causes cervix to relax
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Parturition Stage 1
Variable in duration Often depends on the experience of the bitch On average lasts 1-2hrs
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Parturition Stage 2
Cervix dilates Contractions are more obvious Noticeable straining Time onset between straining and first foetus = 10-30mins Uterine contractions increase in intensity Onset abdominal contractions and propulsion of first foetus to be pushed through cervix into vagina Puppy will appear, usually still surrounded by a thin but though membrane (amnion) Sac is broken by dam as she licks pup to stimulate respiration - may need help in some cases
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Parturition Stage 3
Foetal membranes and placenta pass Bitch may eat placenta Dark green discharge may be seen following parturition May happen for up to a week - considered normal
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Parturition Stage 4 (puerperium)
Reproductive tract returns to its normal state Bitch should be checked to ensure she’s recovered Offer her a small amount of food and water Take her to the toilet Clean whelping area Interference should be minimal Weigh puppies and check for abnormalities