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Animal Diversity Yr 2 > Vertebrates 2 > Flashcards

Vertebrates 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the fish that gave rise to the tetrapods often known as?

A

Tetrapodomorph fish

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2
Q

The spiracular region is the beginnings of a tetrapod … …

A

middle ear

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3
Q

Tiktaalik was discovered in … …

A

arctic canada

- dates to 383MYA

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4
Q

… -> Tiktaalik -> Tetrapods

A

Panderichthys

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5
Q

Tiktaalik had reduced … …, allowing more … flexibility, larger … and a longer …. It also had flexible pectoral fins that may have acted as …

A

gill covers, head, ribs, snout, props (bones homologous to tetrapod limbs)

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6
Q

Name two of the first tetrapods (from 365MYA)

A

Acanthostega and icthyostega

  • had pelvis, limb formation, ribs
  • although still had long tail and operculum
  • had polydactyly
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7
Q

What is the most basal described tetrapod (described recently)?

A

Parmastega

  • eyes on top of head
  • spiracle on top of head - for gaining air?
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8
Q

These tetrapods had features advantageous to life … …. It is important to distinguish the evolution of tetrapods and the evolution of terrestrial vertebrate life as 2 separate events

A

in water

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9
Q

Name a fish that uses fins for walking

A

Frog fish (type of angler fish)

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10
Q

Tetrapod like tracks have been found before panderichthyes

A

which really throws a spanner in the works dunnit?

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11
Q

Reduction of digits in birds and mammals is usually associated with…

A

high speed running (e.g. ostriches and some artiodactyls e.g. antelopes)

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12
Q

What are the two ways in which number of digits can be reduced?

A
  • Reduced expression of a gene called PTCH1
  • Cell death (apoptosis)

convergent evolution is shown in these ways of reducing digits (e.g. pigs and cattle reduced gene expression, camels and horses cell death)

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13
Q

The amniotes are all tetrapods except…

A

amphibians

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14
Q

Which tetrapods gave rise to the amphibians?

A

Batrachomorphs

temnospondylls and lepospondylls

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15
Q

What are the three amphibian groups?

A
  • urodeles, anurans, caecilians
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16
Q

Amphibians have … skin

A

permeable - susceptible to water loss and vulnerable to things in their environment

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17
Q

The African clawed frog has…

A

a lateral line and fish like eyes as it is a purely aquatic animal

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18
Q

Anuran body form evolved because of advantage in…

A

swimming with hind legs

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19
Q

Anurans have reduced … and an enlarged … called a …

A

vertebrae, pelvis, urostyle

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20
Q

Toads hop more than they jump, leaving them vulnerable to predation. Therefore, many have evolved…

A

poison gland in their skin for protection

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21
Q

Caecilians are either … or …

A

burrowing, aquatic

  • why they have lost limbs
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22
Q

Unlike anurans and urodeles, caecilians have …

A

scales

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23
Q

Amphibians have the … … and the …-… … in their ears

A

papilla amphibiorum, operculum-columella complex

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24
Q

Amphibians gained … rods in their retina, in addition to the .. rods (excluding caecilians)

A

green, red

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25
Q

Amphibians have … teeth

A

pedicellate (dentine separated by connective tissue)

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26
Q

Amphibians have a … … muscle which causes their eyes to bulge forward, enlarging their … …, and allows the bilateral turning of their eyes for hunting

A

levator bulbi, buccal cavity

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27
Q

Caecilians have … fertilisation and…

A

internal, give birth to live young or lay eggs

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28
Q

Female caecilians can give birth to up to … offspring, which have up to … the body length of adults. Energy for growth is first supplied by yolk, then by the mother (“… …” secretions from walls of oviducts)

A

nine, 60%, uterine milk

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29
Q

Foetal caecilians have foetal … for scraping the oviduct walls for nourishment (evolved several times independently)

A

dentitions

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30
Q

Axolotls are a … species

A

paedomorphic

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31
Q

Urodeles fertilise internally using … made of a … base with a sperm cap

A

spermatophores, gelatinous

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32
Q

Salamanders display … and … cues for mate attraction

A

visual, pheromonal

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33
Q

Salamanders transfer pheromones by … … in aquatic environments and skin slapping, biting or rubbing in terrestrial species

A

tail fanning

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34
Q

Most urodeles have aquatic eggs and larvae. Purely terrestrial species are …

A

ovoviviparous

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35
Q

In some species of urodele, paedomorphosis depends on….

A

ecological conditions

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36
Q

All frogs are …

A

carnivorous

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37
Q

The tibia and fibula of anurans are …

A

fused

- for extra leg strength

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38
Q

The amphibian life cycle we know and love is…

A

only really common in temperate regions

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39
Q

There is less predation pressure…

A

on land than in aquatic habitats

-> requires various, often convergent adaptations against desssication

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40
Q

Increasing egg and larval size enhances…

A

their survival rate

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41
Q

Another way to enhance survival is to increase…

A

parental care

  • this has also evolved many times convergently
  • trade-off of production of fewer, more costly eggs with longer developmental time vs many eggs
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42
Q

Foam nests are produced from secretions from the …

A

oviduct - frothed up by males and females hind legs - protects eggs from drying out and hides them fro predators - has evolved six times across different continents

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43
Q

Some frogs lay eggs on leaves that…

A

overhang water, so they fall in once they hatch - has evolved 3 times - sometimes folded into large leaves, sometimes guarded by male

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44
Q

Some terrestrial frogs display … and some even display … or … brooding

A

ovoviviparity (and 3 true viviparity), mouth, stomach

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45
Q

Male poison dart frogs often have (and defend) territories of up to several hundred m2. They have terrestrial egg clutches, and tadpoles hatch and…

A

climb onto their parent’s (male or female) back, where they are transported to aquatic sites. Small ephemeral water bodies are usually predator-free, but also contain no food, so some species feed tadpoles with unfertilised eggs

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46
Q

For reproduction, frogs (mostly) communicate …

A

acoustically (unlike pheromones and visual cues in salamanders) - generally only males call - amplified by vocal sack in circle around frog

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47
Q

What are the pros and cons of acoustic signalling?

A

Pros - easy, circumvent obstacles, works in the dark

Cons - usually travel short distances and cover short time periods. Can attract predators. Costly to produce

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48
Q

Tungara frogs - whines or whines+chucks

A

Chucks increase predation risk but males who produce more chucks chosen by females

  • only one male - no chucks only whines
  • more males = Whines+chucks
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49
Q

Frogs that live in very noisy environments, e.g. waterfalls, use … signals

A

visual - e.g. lifting legs (evolved convergently 3 times)

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50
Q

When did the most amniote diversification occur?

A

Permian period

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51
Q

There was a division of the tetrapods into the … (which gave rise to the amphibians) and the … (which gave rise to the amniotes)

A

batrachomorphs, reptilomorphs

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52
Q

The diversification of the tetrapods was thought to be driven by the radiation of … and possibly increased diversification of …

A

insects, vegetation

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53
Q

The Amniotes (during the permian period) diversified into the … (which gave rise to the mammals) and the … (which gave rise to all the other amniotes (reptiles and birds)

A

Synapsids, sauropsids

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54
Q

What is the main feature that draws together the amniotes?

A

The amniote egg - 3 extraembryonic membranes (chorion, allantois, amnion) - no larval stage - has to be laid on land (egg is porous and we don’t want no drowning up in here)

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55
Q

What is the allantois for?

A

Waste products + gaseous exchange (as heavily vascularised)

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56
Q

What is the amnion for?

A

Encloses and protects embryo, prevents dessication

57
Q

What is the chorion for?

A

Encloses everything including yolk, embryo and allantois - for gas exchange

58
Q

The ancestral amniote shell was rather …, whereas modern bird and lizard shells, for example, have … deposits, making them more robust and less vulnerable to desiccation

A

leathery (had to be buried to keep them damp and prevent dessication), calcium

59
Q

The amniote egg has increased … … for gaseous exchange and increased …, meaning larger eggs can be produced, meaning larger adults can be produced

A

Surface area, support

60
Q

What are some main derived features of amniotes?

A
  • Thicker, keratinised skin, with more lipids (more waterproof). Elaborations on skin, such as scales, hair and feathers (keratin) - anatomical placode forms all of these (thickening of the epidermis) - homologous structures
  • costal (rib) ventilation - more dependent on lungs for respiration - allows longer neck - allows more complex nerves controlling forelimb
  • Temporal fenestration - may allow muscles to expand and strengthen
61
Q

There are two groups of diapsids:

A

Archosaurs - birds, dinosaurs, crocodilians (turtles are sister group)

Lepidosaurs - lizards, snakes, tuatara

62
Q

non-amniotes required larger head for … rather than … respiration

A

buccal, costal

63
Q

Turtles are … but look …

A

diapsid, anapsid

64
Q

The turtles (Chelonia) have a … above their vertebrae and a … below, which are bony plates. Elaborations on these plates, made of keratin, are called …. The vertebrae and ribs are actually attached to the …

A

carapace, plastron, scutes, carapace

65
Q

There are no … in modern day turtles

A

teeth

66
Q

Odontechelys had a … but not a developed …, which suggests an aquatic origin because…

A

plastron, carapace, predators may have attacked from below (this would not happen on land)

67
Q

Turtle lungs are attached to their …, which is controlled by muscles that expand or compress it. This is how the lungs are inflated or deflated.

A

viscera (gut)

68
Q

It is believed turtles use …, … … and … for navigation

A

light, wave direction, magnetism

69
Q

Turtles show …-… … determination

A

temperature-dependent sex

  • males at low temps, females at high
  • thought to be ancestral amniote condition
70
Q

In lizards, females are produced at … temperatures and males at … temperatures

A

low, high

71
Q

Usually the larger sex is produced at the … temperature

A

higher

72
Q

Where are tuataras found?

A

New Zealand (surrounding islands)

73
Q

Tuataras are … animals, which is unusual for a lizard

A

nocturnal (low body temp) - as feed on insects - live in seabird burrows

74
Q

The squamates are the…

A

lizards and snakes - represent >95% of all living reptiles

75
Q

The squamates have a … … skull

A

modified diapsid - loss of bottom arch in lizards and loss of top arch as well in snakes

76
Q

What is the largest lizard?

A

Komodo dragon (3m long)

77
Q

What is the smallest lizard?

A

Dwarf gecko (1.6cm long)

78
Q

Smaller lizards tend to be … and larger lizards tend to be …, with the exception of monitor lizards (including Komodo dragon) which are …

A

insectivorous, herbivorous, carnivorous

79
Q

The komodo dragon is an ambush predator. They do not have a particularly strong … …, although their skull is very resilient to …. Their venom is…

A

bite force, stress, homologous to that of venomous snakes

80
Q

Komodo dragons have a … … which allows them to ventilate their lungs independently of their movement, allowing them to move faster than many lizards

A

gular pump

81
Q

It is believed that … reduction in lizards has evolved over … times

A

limb, 60

82
Q

Snakes are believed to have branched from the lizards in the … period, due to becoming burrowing/digging lizards

A

cretaceous

83
Q

Snakes have many … …, due to a change in gene expression (oct4 - when inserted into mice they develop more thoracic vertebrae and reduced limbs)

A

thoracic vertebrae

84
Q

Snakes lack … and … … (but they are vestigial in pythons and boas)

A

pectoral, pelvic girdles

85
Q

Snakes have an incredibly … jaw due to many … of ….

A

flexible, points, articulation

86
Q

The main 2 types of immobilisation carried out by snakes are…

A

using venomous fangs or constriction (reduces oxygen supply to organs

87
Q

Alligators tend to be found in…

A

the new world (apart from the chinese alligator)

88
Q

Gharials are found in…

A

india, indonesia, malaysia

89
Q

Crocodiles have a … skull and teeth in …, as well as a … … which separates the nostrils from the mouth.

A

diapsid, sockets (thecodont), secondary palate (can open mouth underwater and doesn’t interfere with breathing - most reptiles don’t have - also have gular valve)

90
Q

Crocodilians have sensory structures around their mouths and heads. They are extremely sensitive to touch and vibrations. Why may this be?

A
  • Sense vibrations from prey

- Careful handling offspring during parental care

91
Q

Gharials largely feed on ….

A

fish

92
Q

Other crocodilians, including the false gharial, are..

A

more generalist feeders

93
Q

Crocodilians have been seen displaying … behaviour

A

play (socially and on their own + with objects)

94
Q

Crocodiles can both … and …

A

walk, gallop

95
Q

What are some defining characteristics of birds?

A
  • bills
  • feathers
  • wings
  • hollow bones
  • gizzards with stones in (instead of teeth)
  • warm blooded (slightly warmer than ours)
96
Q

There are around … species of birds

A

10,000

97
Q

What are the three main theories on the phylogenetic origin of birds?

A
  1. Direct descendants of crocodilians
  2. Descendants of unknown group within the archosaurs
  3. Descendants of the Therapoda (small, carnivorous dinosaurs) - became established through phylogenetic analysis and fossil discoveries in the last 20 years - in particular Dromeosaurs, which couldn’t fly but had feathers
98
Q

Feathers are modified …

A

scales

99
Q

Feathers may have evolved for…

A
  • sexual selection (melanosomes preserved in fossils)

- insulation (may well have been warm blooded) - convergent to fur

100
Q

Birds evolved probably sometime in the … period, but diversified in the … period

A

jurassic, cretaceous

101
Q

Through time along the dinosaur lineage there is a common trend of…

A

becoming smaller (to birds)

102
Q

Birds have achieved their small size partly through …, shown by…

A

paedomorphosis, the fact that there is less difference between the juvenile and adult skull of bird-like dinosaurs as you go further along the archosaur lineage. Archaeopteryx juveniles had very similar skulls to adults.

103
Q

Birds have larger … relative to body size and larger …, with much of the brain devoted to …

A

brains, eyes, vision

104
Q

Raptors have a … second toe

A

hyperextendible

105
Q

On the front of a bird’s wing is the …, used for directing airflow over the wing

A

alula - very reduced first digit

106
Q

What features do birds share with reptile dinosaurs?

A
  • Scales
  • Egg-laying
  • Bipedal
  • S-shaped neck
  • Tridactyl foot
  • Wishbone and fused sternum (Therapods)
  • Digitigrade posture (toes bear weight)
107
Q

When was the first archaeopteryx fossil discovered?

A

1861 (most valuable fossil specimen on the planet)

- 11 more have been found since (12 in total)

108
Q

What are the reptile features of archaeopteryx?

A

Thick bones, toothed jaw, no fusion of vertebrae

109
Q

what are the avian features of archaeopteryx?

A

Well-developed feathers (including asymmetrical wing feathers), three fingers, s-shaped neck, wishbone (fused clavicle)

110
Q

Why are wing feathers asymmetrical?

A

More aerodynamic - asymmetrical feathers suggest ability to fly

111
Q

In the most recent archaeopteryx specimen there is evidence of…

A

a hyperextendible second toe as seen in dromaeosaurs (but not present in modern birds)

112
Q

Archaeopterx had a longer … than modern birds, a smaller …, and a much smaller …

A

tail, braincase, sternum

113
Q

Removing archaeopteryx from the base of the aves to nest within Deinonychosauria implies…

A

that typical flight evolved at least twice, or was subsequently lost or modified in some deinonychosaurians. (we know that flight evolved twice in the reptiles already though - think of the pterosaurs)

114
Q

Give early examples of birds/bird-like therapods

A
  • Mononykus - mongolian specimens with strange forelimbs and no ability to fly, but otherwise similar to other known birds
  • Iberomesornis - early cretaceous bird from central spain. Structural advancements in forelimbs and tail compared to archaeopteryx, including ossified sternum and a pygostyle
  • Enantiornithes (opposite birds)
  • Hesperornis - early flightless sea birds
115
Q

In 1999 National Geographic were approached with a new specimen claimed to be the link between birds and non-bird dinosaurs: “Archaeoraptor”. However..

A

subsequent analysis showed that this specimen was artificially composed of a Dromaeosaur and an early bird

116
Q

Modern birds diverged around …

A

150MYA

117
Q

The ability of birds to … is tightly linked with their success as the most … group of terrestrial vertebrates

A

fly, diverse

- given birds niche opportunities not otherwise available

118
Q

What are the advantages of flight?

A
  • Can escape predators
  • Can migrate (to exploit different niches at different times of year) - rather than hibernation
  • Efficient way of foraging as can cover larger area
  • Can move quickly (peregrine is fastest animal at 200km/h in stoop)
  • Can colonise otherwise inaccessible habitats e.g. remote islands
  • Cost-effective locomotion (gliding)
119
Q

What are the constraints of flight?

A
  • anatomical restrictions
  • Energetically costly
  • Limits size and weight (Muscular power needed to take off increases by factor of 2.25 for each doubling of biomass)
120
Q

Many dinosaurs had feathers. Flight possibly evolved in more than one lineage.

A

yes

121
Q

What are the two main theories for the evolution of flight?

A
  • Cursorial - running (stabilisation and/or catching prey) - tended to be more supported by archaeologists
  • Arboreal - from the trees down - getting from one place to another
122
Q

What is the WAIR theory?

A

Wing-Assisted Incline Running - displayed in modern brids such as pigeons and partridge juveniles

123
Q

Until recently, it was considered more likely that flight evolved from a … stage where wings were used for prey capture:

  • … morphological evidence of climbing abilities
  • lack of … in locations where Archaeopteryx was found
  • Spread of feathered forelimbs was originally probably for … during running
  • Archaeopteryx could most probably glide, but its ability for … in flight is in doubt due to the likely lack of a … …
A

cursorial, ambiguous, trees, stabilisation, flapping, flexible wrist

124
Q

However, what are the problems with the cursorial origin of flight theory?

A
  • max running speed is 2m/s (from footprints) but estimated min flying speed is 6m/s
  • supplying high energy demands of flight (flight against gravity)
  • problem of explaining origin of the ‘flight’ stroke in an earthbound organism
125
Q

Hoatzin offspring have…

A

claws - evidence for arboreal evolution - similar to archaeopteryx

126
Q

What is Feduccia’s claw arc analysis?

A

Climbers, perchers and ground-dwelling birds have different depths of of claw arc. He concluded that Archaeopteryx was an arboreal, climbing bird that glided from heights

  • forelimbs correspond with climbers, hind limbs correspond with perchers
127
Q

In 2001 and 2002, new specimens of dromaeosaurs were discovered in China (genus Microraptor) - they had … similar to archaeopteryx and … similar to ancient arboreal birds. However, their … were feathered. A four limbed flight would make more sense if early birds were …

A

forelimbs, hindlimbs, hindlimbs, arboreal

  • late jurassic
128
Q

What are feathers primarily made of?

A

B-Keratin (beta) - >90%

1% lipids, 8% water, pigments

129
Q

Filoplume feathers and bristles are used…

A

as sensory receptors

130
Q

A wing functions as both an aerofoil (… …) and forward motion (…). Their shape, area and position can be modified, making them more aerodynamically complex than aeroplanes

A

lifting surface, propeller

131
Q

How does an aerofoil wing work?

A

Bottom surface of the wing pushes the air forward and down, creating an area of high pressure below the wing and low pressure above –> lift

132
Q

The alula produces a … in front of the airfoil to reduce …

A

slot, turbulence

133
Q

Slots between feathers on wing tips reduce tip …

A

vortex (stalling)

134
Q

The … feathers generate thrust and the … feathers generate lift

A

primary, secondary

135
Q

A bird’s lung is…

A

one-way

136
Q

Colours and patterns are important for … … and …, and are generated through a combination of … and … characteristics

A

sexual selection, crypsis, pigment, structural

137
Q

Iridescence is created by…

A

the interference of reflections from many layers of melanin platelets - change in colour viewed from different angles

138
Q

Evidence remains … in arboreal vs cursorial theories

A

equivocal

Animal Diversity Yr 2 (6 decks)

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