USA- The quest for civil rights, 1917–80 Flashcards
Where and when was the Elaine Massacre and how many died as a result?
Arkansas, 1919, estimated 200 African American deaths.
What had sparked the Elaine Massacre? What happened?
Allegedly, rumours spread that the Black workers had killed a white man, which escalated the situation. Armed white mobs, including law enforcement, began hunting down Black residents in the area.
Who was arrested for the Elaine Massacre?
No white Americans were held accountable
What happened to a young African American Boy in 1955? Who? How old was he? Where?
In 1955, 14-year-old Emmett Till was lynched in Mississippi after being accused of flirting with a white woman
What happened to Emmett Till’s killers? Even better if you can remember their names?
His killers, Roy Bryant and J.W. Milam, were acquitted by an all-white jury.
What was the impact of Emmett Till’s death/funeral?
Till’s open-casket funeral and wide media coverage sparked national outrage.
What Executive Order did Roosevelt issue during WW1, and what specific date was it issued? What did it do?
In 1941 Roosevelt issued Executive order 8802 banning racial discrimination in the defence industry, which was overseen by the Fair Employment Practices Committee.
What led to Roosevelts Executive Order in 1941?
A. Philip Randolph led the 100,000 strong march
What is a statistic which shows the increase in % of African Americans in defence during WW2?
It rose from 3% in 1943 to 8% in 1944.
What policy did the National Recovery Administration (NRA) enforce regarding wages during the New Deal?
The NRA set both black and white minimum wages to be equal.
What happened in the Scottsboro Boys case after the initial guilty verdicts?
International attention and repeated legal challenges led to new trials, with charges eventually dropped or reduced. The last living Scottsboro Boy, Clarence Norris, was pardoned in 1976.
What was the motto of the Housewives League?
“Don’t buy where you can’t work.”
When did the attack on Pearl Harbour take place?
December 7, 1941.
What did Truman set up to address Civil Rights and when? What did it call for?
The President’s Committee on Civil Rights in 1946. Called for equal opportunities in work and housing and strong federal support for civil rights.
What executive orders did Truman issue in regarding desegregation and when?
In 1948. He desegregated the military and all work done by businesses for the government.
How did NAACP membership change from 1917 to 1919 to 1946?
It rose from 9,000 in 1917, to 90,000 in 1919, to 600,000 in 1946.
What was the significance of the Murray vs Maryland ruling and when was it?
1936, It desegregated the University of Maryland’s law school.
What did the Shelley vs Kraemer ruling ban and when was it?
1948, It banned racial covenants on any property.
2 examples of where and when the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) held sit-ins?
Chicago in 1942 and Baltimore in 1952.
What is he significance of the Brown vs Board of Education ruling and when was it? Which organisation was involved and how
- The NAACP led legal representation in the case, which ruled that racial segregation in public schools was inherently unequal and therefore unconstitutional.
Which phrase used in the Brown vs Board of Education ruling hampered progress and how?
‘With all deliberate speed’ as it allowed desegregation to happen very slowly.
How long did the Montgomery Bus Boycott last, and when did it end?
It lasted 380 days and ended on December 5, 1955.
What percentage of bus users were Black in Montgomery, and what percentage of African Americans participated in the boycott?
75% of bus users were Black, and 90% of African Americans boycotted.
When did the Supreme Court rule bus segregation unconstitutional?
On November 13, 1956.
What happened in Little Rock, Arkansas, and when?
1957, Nine Black students attempted to integrate Central High School, but Governor Faubus used the National Guard to block them. President Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce desegregation.
When did the Greensboro sit-in take place, and how many students participated?
It was in February 1960, with 30 students participating.
When was the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) founded, and what was one of its main goals? Example of actions they did to aid this?
It was founded in April 1960 and worked to encourage voter registration, e.g. through holding citizenship classes
What were the Freedom Rides and when, and what challenges did activists face?
1961, Activists protested segregated bus terminals, facing violent mobs, arrests, and international attention.
What happened during the Birmingham, Alabama protests and when?
- Peaceful protesters, including children, were attacked by police using fire hoses and attack dogs, shocking the nation and increasing support for the Civil Rights Movement.
Following Birmingham protests, what % of Americans considered race the USA’s most pressing issue?
42%
What and when was the Freedom Summer, and what statistic shows how successful was it?
- It was a campaign to register Black voters, but only 1,600 of the 17,000 who applied were accepted.
When were the Black Panthers formed?
In 1966.
What phrase did Stokely Carmichael suggest replacing ‘freedom’ with and when?
‘Black Power’ in 1966
What was the Southern Manifesto, and when was it signed?
On March 12, 1956, 102 Southern Congressmen (racists) signed it, condemning the Brown vs Board of Education ruling.
How many troops were required in order to ensure integration of the University of Mississippi and when?
1962, and 3,000 troops.
How many people attended the March on Washington and when was it? And what was its significance?
In 1963, over 250,000 people attended, demanding civil rights. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his ‘I Have a Dream’ speech.
What and when was the Selma March, and what did it lead to?
- A protest for voting rights led by MLK, where activists faced police violence. It led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
What was the focus of MLK’s Northern Crusade in 1966? Why could it be considered a failure?
It highlighted issues such as unions, working conditions, education, and poverty. Did not lea to any permanent gains.
What did the Fair Housing Act do and when was it?
1968, Prohibits discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing.
What did the Civil Rights Act ban and when was it? What was a limitation?
1964, Bans discrimination in public places, employment, and education based on race, religion, sex, or national origin.
Limitation: It did nothing to facilitate Black Voting.
What did the Voting Rights Act do and when was it?
- It banned racial discrimination in voting and provided federal oversight to ensure African Americans could vote.
What was the ruling in Heart of Atlanta Motel vs United States and when was it?
- It ruled that private businesses had to abide by the Civil Rights Act.
What did the 1960 Civil Rights Act make illegal?
Obstructing federal orders by threat or force, and it authorized federal ‘referees’ to oversee voting.
What did Kennedy’s 1962 Executive Order ban?
Discrimination in the allocation of federal housing.
What did the Emergency School Aid Act aim to do, and when was it?
1970, Aimed to provide federal funding to help schools integrate and support racial integration efforts.
What did the Swann v Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education ruling in uphold? When?
- Unanimous support to uphold the policy of busing children out of poor areas to desegregated schools.
What percentage of African Americans voted in 1966 and 1980?
58.2% in 1966 and 60% in 1980.
What percentage of Black high school dropouts aged 25-34 had criminal records in 1980?
75%.
When was the policy of ‘termination’ for Native Americans passed, and what did it do?
It was passed in 1953, freeing Native Americans from federal control and protecting them under U.S. federal and state laws, but it also led to the sale of tribal lands.
What did the Indian Removal Act do and when was it? and when was it declared unfair?
Passed in 1830, It approved the forced relocation of Native American tribes and was only declared unfair in the 1960s.
Who ran the Indian Boarding Schools as part of the policy of assimilation and from when?
From 1893 and The Bureau of Indian Affairs.
What did the Indian Civil Rights Act ban and when?
1968, It banned tribes from restricting the civil rights of tribal members.
When was the American Indian Movement (AIM) established?
In 1968.
What was AIM’s membership by 1971?
4,500 members.
What was the slogan of the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI)?
“Red Power.”
What was the purpose of the Indian Relocation Act of 1956, and was it successful?
It encouraged Native Americans aged 18-35 to move to cities but was unsuccessful as it led to the dislocation of tribes.
What and when was the Trail of Broken Treaties, and what did protesters occupy?
1972, Led by AIM, it was a protest against the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), where activists occupied its headquarters in Washington, D.C., demanding reforms in federal policies regarding Native American rights and tribal sovereignty.
What was the Wounded Knee Occupation and when?
1973, A 71-day standoff between AIM and U.S. authorities, where activists seized Wounded Knee in South Dakota to protest Native American mistreatment, tribal corruption, and broken treaties, leading to gunfire and casualties.
What was the Longest Walk and when?
A protest march in 1973 from San Francisco to Washington against the removal of Native Americans from their homeland and Congress’ unwillingness to renegotiate treaties.
What was Nixon’s stance on Native American policies?
He rejected both ‘termination’ and forced assimilation.
What did the Indian Self-Financing Act provide and when was it?
1974, it provided funding for Native American tribes.
What did the Indian Self-Determination Act change? When was it?
- It removed the Bureau of Indian Affairs from services in health and education.
What land did Congress return to which tribe, when?
Returned the Blue Lake to the Taos Pueblo tribe in 1970.
What did the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) do and when was it?
- It granted Alaska Natives 40 million acres of land and $462.5 million in compensation, resolving land disputes and establishing Native-owned corporations to manage resources.
What issue did Native Hawaiians continue to face?
Hawaii continued to evict Native Americans from land if the state wanted to use it for building.
What was the Bracero Program, and how many contracts were issued?
Between 1942 and 1964, it issued 4.6 million contracts for Mexican laborers to work temporarily in U.S. agriculture and railroads, but working conditions were considered appalling.
How many Mexicans were deported during which operation (1953-1958)?
‘Operation Wetback’. Around 3.8 million.
Who was Cesar Chavez?
The leader of the non-violent movement for Hispanic workers’ rights.
What was La Raza Unida, and who led it?
A political movement encouraging Hispanic voting, led by Jose Angel Gutierrez.
When were the Brown Berets formed and what minority did they represent?
In 1967. Hispanics.
When was Cesar Chavez’s fast and how many days did it last?
In 1968. Lasted 25 days.
What was the Brown Berets’ 1971 march protesting?
Police brutality and discrimination.
What established the right for farm workers to unionise and when?
California’s Agricultural Labour Relations Act of 1975
When was the Voting Rights Act extension and what did it provide?
1975, Language assistance at polling stations.
When did Hispanics become equal under law following a Supreme Court ruling?
1954
What happened at the Stonewall Inn and when?
On 28th June 1969 there was a police raid on a gay bar in New York City which sparked violent protests.
How many people attended the New York Gay Pride March and when was it?
10,000 people attended on the 28th August 1970.
What percentage of Americans supported equal rights for gays in 1977?
50%.
Who was the first openly gay candidate elected to public office, and when?
Kathy Kozachenko in 1974.
Who was the first openly gay elected official in California and when? What did he advocate for?
Harvey Milk, elected in 1977, advocated for LGBTQ+ rights and minority communities.
When and how was Harvey Milk assassinated? Who was his murderer and what did he get sentenced with?
On November 27, 1978, along with Mayor George Moscone, by former Supervisor Dan White, who was sentenced to 7 years.
What was Proposition 6 and when?
In 1978 it was a proposed California law to ban gays, lesbians, and their supporters from working in state-funded schools.
What was the first Supreme Court ruling in favor of LGBTQ+ rights?
In 1958, the Court refused to let the postal service ban a gay magazine as ‘obscene.’
What did the New York City Commission on Human Rights rule in regarding bars and when?
Ruled in 1966 that bars must serve gay patrons.
What did the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations issue and when?
In 1968 issued the Homosexual Bill of Rights, calling for equality.
What happened on the anniversary of the Stonewall riots?
Marches were held in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.
When did the American Psychiatric Association remove homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses?
On December 15, 1973.
What was the National March on Washington for lesbian and gay rights, and when did it occur?
A march urging protective legislation, held on October 14, 1979.
What did the Democratic Party announce in August 1980 about LGBTQ+ rights?
That they would not discriminate against gays and would campaign for their rights.
How many openly gay state judges were appointed by the Governor of California between 1979 and 1981?
4
What was the purpose of Dade County, Florida’s proposed law in 1977?
To stop discrimination in housing, public facilities, and employment based on sexual orientation.
Who was Anita Bryant, and what was her role in the opposition to LGBTQ+ rights?
A spokeswoman and former beauty queen who campaigned against the law, forming the ‘Save Our Children’ coalition, arguing that it promoted the acceptance of homosexuality and negatively affected children.
What was the UFW and when was it formed?
United Farm Workers (Hispanic), originated from the merger of two workers’ rights organizations. Formed 1966
What % of African Americans lived in the south in 1917? What jobs did most of them have?
90% and most were sharecroppers
Example of African Americans Political influence in 1920.
Oscar DePriest gained election as
Chicago’s first black alderman and in 1920 he became the first black American
elected to the US House of Representatives in the twentieth century.
Evidence of KKK revival in 20s.
membership rose from 100,000 in 1921 to 4 mil in 1924.
What happened when demobilised soldiers returned from WW1?
There were race riots in 25 American cities because whites resented black competition for scarce jobs and accommodation.
How many African Americans had moved to Chicago between 1910 and 1920?
Around 50,000 black Americans had moved into Chicago between 1910 and
1920.
Evidence of violence in Chicago in the 20s. (4 figures to include)
Irish and Polish workers supported by the police and the military attacked black Chicagoans during two weeks of riots in which 15 white people and 25 black people were killed, 500 people were injured, and the homes of over 1000 black families were set on fire and destroyed by white mobs.
What was the most popular black organisation in the 20s? What did they advocate? How many members did it have by 1925?
Marcus Garvey’s United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).
the UNIA advocated self-help, armed self-defence, separation of the races, and black pride.
By 1925, the UNIA had 500,000 members,
How much higher was urban black unemployment than urban white employment during the Great Depression?
Urban black unemployment was around five times higher than that of white people
Under Roosevelt how did the number of African Americans in the federal bureaucracy change?
Under Roosevelt, the number of black Americans employed in the federal bureaucracy rose from 50,000 to 150,000 by 1941.
Example of Eleanor Roosevelt’s support of the CRM?
She flew in a plane piloted by a black airman because black aerial prowess was doubted by white racists.
Example of employment opportunities for African Americans under the New Deal. However what’s a limitation?
For example, an average 350,000 worked each year for the Works Progress Administration (WPA). However, only 5% of black WPA workers in the North had supervisory roles.
Example of the popularity Roosevelt gained among the black population?
Roughly 70 per cent of black voters had
supported Hoover, but 76 per cent of them favoured Roosevelt in 1936.
In the 1946 Truman established a committee of liberals to investigate increasing racial violence. What is the name of the committees report and give examples included in what it called for?
The committee’s report, entitled ‘To Secure These Rights’, called for:
-anti-lynching legislation
-abolition of the poll tax
-voting rights laws
(these were revolutionary recommendations at this time)
Eisenhower’s view vs actions on African Americans experience of voting in the South.
In a 1957 speech, Eisenhower expressed ‘shock’ that only 7000 of Mississippi’s 900,000 black population could vote and that white registrars asked impossible questions such as ‘How many bubbles are there in a bar of soap?’. He drew up a civil rights bill to remedy this but Southern Democrats successfully weakened the bill, and Eisenhower
did not defend it.
What was The Nation of Islam (NOT) and when was it established?
A black separatist religion, which believed Allah originally created people black and other inferior races were the creation of the evil scientist Yacub, but Allah would eventually return and restore black supremacy. Established in the Detroit ghetto in 1930.
Why did NOI membership increase in the 50s?
because of the brilliant preaching of the
charismatic Malcolm X, who encouraged armed self-defence.
Who was Stokely Carmichael?
Leader of SNCC from
1966, he advocated Black
Power, promoted the
expulsion of whites from
SNCC and rejected non-
violence and integration. He gravitated towards the Black Panthers.
Example of ghetto violence in the 60s?
The first major riot occurred in 1965 in the Watts ghetto in Los Angeles: 34 died and over $40 million worth of damage was done, mostly to white-owned businesses.
Example of black radicalism in late 60s within organisation
SNCC expelled whites in 1966 and declared non violence inappropriate when black Americans needed to defend themselves. CORE did the same in 1968.
What did the Black Panthers focus on? What actions did they take (4 with 1 statistic)
The Black Panthers focused upon ghetto improvements. They:
1- established clinics in which advice was given on health, welfare and legal
rights
2- served up Free Breakfasts to the ghetto poor (nearly 2000 weekly in Southern
California in 1970)
3- established summer schools for the study of black history and culture in order
to promote black self-esteem
4- followed police cars in order to expose police brutality in the ghettos, which
led to some violent shootouts.
What caused the decline of the Black Panthers in the 70s?
The shootouts, the successful targeting of the Black Panthers by the authorities between 1967 and 1969, and internal divisions
What did a 1970 poll reveal about African American views on the Black Panthers?
A 1970 poll revealed that 64% of black Americans took great pride in them.
Successes of Voting Rights Act?
By 1968, even Mississippi was up to 59%. By 1980, the proportion of black Southerners registered to vote was only 7% below the proportion of whites.
Evidence of political advancements for African Americans in the South. 1960-80.
In 1960, there were no black officials in Mississippi; in 1980, there were over 300.
Evidence of successes in Johnson’s Great Society programmes.
His Great Society programmes contributed to a 34 per cent fall in black unemployment and a 25 per cent fall in the percentage of black Americans living below the poverty line.
Poll that contributed to Congress’ lack of cooperation with Johnson’s proposals to aid African Americans?
In 1966, polls showed 70 per cent of white voters opposed large numbers of black neighbours, so Congress rejected Johnson’s proposed bill to prohibit discrimination in housing rental and sales.
What event prompted the passing of the Fair Housing Act? When was the event and when was it passed? Limitation?
King’s assassination in April 1968 prompted congressional guilt and the passage of the Fair Housing Act one week after, but determined white opposition made it difficult to enforce its prohibition of discrimination in the sale or rental of housing.
What did Johnson believe could alleviate poverty and what does this mean? What did it do to promote this?
Affirmative action- giving
disadvantaged people extra
opportunities in education
and employment in order
to compensate for previous
unfair treatment.
Under his executive order of 1965, any institution receiving federal funding had to employ more non- whites.
Example of a Hispanic organisation, when was it established, what did they campaign against, and example of actions they took.
Mexican-American Youth Organization (MAYO) in 1967. MAYO campaigned against segregation, police brutality and inferior education, and encouraged voter registration and school walkouts.
In spring 1968, around 10,000 Mexican-American students in East Los Angeles high schools staged walkouts or ‘Blowouts’.
Example of limitations to political progression for African Americans by 1980.
In 1980, black Americans constituted over 10% of the US population but only 1% of elected officials.
Example of (slowly) closing educational educational gap between black and white Americans
In 1970, 31% of African Americans and 55% of whites over 25 had completed four+ years of high school; by 1980, the figures rose to 51% and 69%, respectively.
Example of social inequality in ghettos by 1980
Ghetto housing and health remained poor; Black children faced twice the infant mortality and dropout rates of white children and were four times more likely to be murdered.
Example of white backlash to affirmative action
In 1975, a judge blocked Detroit’s ‘last hired, first fired’ rule to protect newly hired Black officers, sparking a ‘police riot’ where white officers attacked a Black colleague.
Income inequality evidence by 1980
By 1980, median black household income was only 60% that of whites (a similar figure to 1965).
