Urban Issues And Challenges Flashcards
What is urbanisation?
a growth in the population of a country’s population living in urban areas (% of population)
% of world’s population living in urban areas
55%
Rural to Urban Migration
when large numbers of people migrate from villages in the countryside (rural) to the main cities (urban) in search of a better life.
examples of push factors
not enough jobs, high crime rate, pollution, poor medical care, poverty, lack of freedom, few job opportunities
examples of pull factors
better education, more fertile land, more wealth, better medical care, peaceful living conditions, better housing
Megacity -
A metropolitan area with a total population in excess of ten million people
Why do megacities grow so quickly?
- Coasts allow global trade in port cities e.g Shenzhen
- TNCs have focused production in urban areas > wealth for governments.
- Access to imported medical care + technology are examples of changes in natural increase
Why is Lagos a good location for a city?
It is on the Atlantic Ocean coast so there is increased trade with other nations, increasing the wealth of Lagos as a lot of trade (imports + exports) happens on the Harbour.
Jobs are also provided to run the Harbour.
Tourism in beacches brings money to Lagos and offers jobs.
Lagos - Statistics on Rural to Urban Migration
7 million migrants between 1990 and 2004.
Population - 300,000 to 20,000,000 from 1950 to today
Push Factors for LAGOS
- Boko Haram are a terrorist group in N/E Nigeria.
- Large scale pollution in areas such as the Niger Delta by oil production.
- Severe drought in the North makes small scale farmers to bad harvests > food can be scarce.
Pull Factors for LAGOS
- Lagos is well connected by air and has a sea port.
- Lagos is home to Nigeria’s movie industry named ‘Nollywood’
- Lagos has more schools, better healthcare facilities and more entertainment
Natural increase in LAGOS
- Fertility rate of 5.65 births per women.
- Better healthcare leads to a lower infant mortality rate.
- More children reach adulthood so the population booms.
Definition - social opportunities:
Access to basic services and how these can improve your quality of live.
Examples of social opportunites in LAGOS
- Education
- Healthcare
- Clean Water
- Energy
inc statistics
Education as a social opportunity in LAGOS
- 11,226 primary schools
- 2,565 secondary schools
- 98% of Lagos’ children in education
- 61% national average (37% lower)
- 10 universities and 5 technical and vocational schools.
inc statistics
Healthcare as a social opportunity in LAGOS
- closer to healthcare than in rural areas
- Life Expectancy rose from 37 in 1960 to 52.5 in 2014 = a 41.2% increase.
- Neonatal mortality rate = 29/1000 compared to 39/1000
- Post-neonatal mortality rate = 16/1000 compared to 31/1000
- Under-five mortality rate = 50/1000 compared to 120/1000
- Number of doctors per patient = 1 per 5,014 compared to 1 per 10,000
inc statistics
Clean Water as a social opportunity in Lagos:
- clean water supply is 81%.
- only wealthiest 10% have a reliable piped water supply.
- others have to rely on stand pipes in the street or water from vendors.
inc statistics
Energy as a social opportunity in Lagos:
- Not very good
- Only wealthy people have access to it
- You can buy a generator though
statistics.
Lagos as a transport hub - ecomomic opportunity:
- Lagos Lagoon provides a sheltered harbour for ships making it accessible.
- Murtala Muhammed International Airport is the main arrival point for 80% of flights to West Africa.
- In 2015, over 7 million passed through the airport.
- Main base for Arik Air, Nigeria’s largest airline.
stats
How important is Lagos to Nigeria’s economy?
- 30% of Nigeria’s GDP
- 10% of population
- New city called Eco Atlantic.
- Will employ 150,000 people and be home to 250,000 people
stats
How does employment differ between Nigeria and Lagos?
- 78% of workforce work in Tertiary industries (jobs providing a service).
- In Nigeria as a whole, this figure rose from 20% in 2000 to 50% in 2016.
Formal economy definition:
Employees pay tax to the local or national government and are entitled to some worker’s rights.
Informal economy definition:
No tax paid, workers do jobs such as street vending (40% do this and it accounts for 90% of Lagos’ new jobs).
Statistics and Facts
Olososun - Nigeria’s biggest landfill site
- 100 acre dump in the centre of Lagos.
- 10,000 tonnes of rubbish every day.
- Waste from 500 container ships is also delivered.
- 1,000 homes are found here.
- Residents sort 3,000 tonnes of waste by hand, picking out valuable items to sell.
- Harvesting methane for energy produces 25MW of electricity, enough to power a town.
stats/facts
Lagos Island - formal economy
- Bank (tertiary)
- Market (food, jobs)
- Technology (tertiary, business, disposable income)
stats
Challenges of growth in Lagos
- 65% live in slums/settlements
- 12 hospitals (understaffed, underequipped, underfunded)
- 1% of households connected to sewers
- Air pollution caused around 11,200 premature deaths.
- 3 hours of traffic per day
- 40% of Nigeria are connected to energy grid and power supply difficulties are experienced 75% of the time.
- 10% have a treated, piped water supply
- 25% unemployment rate
Location and Population of Makoko
- S/E Lagos
- On the lagoon
- N/W of the CBD
- 6 miles S/E of Airport
- 250,000 population
What is Makoko?
An example of an informal settlement in Nigeria.
Problems facing residents in Makoko -
- High rates of HIV/AIDS
- Dirty water not suitable for fishing or drinking
- illegal to live there
- Houses are built from hardwood
- Life Expectancy below 50
- 6-10 per house
Problems with vendors
- not many, so can charge high prices
- Vendors can be part of an organised crime group
- Dirty water causes disease such as cholera or dysentry
- Girls have to carry the 8 gallons of water many miles, bending your back
Issues with Makoko’s old school
- Not enough space
- Flooding
- Structural failures
How was Makoko’s floating school designed?
- using pre-existing materials
- compost toilets
- collects rainwater
- air conditioned
- Built on stilts to adapt to rising sea levels
How does the floating school solve the challenges?
- Low-cost
- Recyclable
- Uses solar panels which is cheap and solves air pollution
- Sloped roofs to harvest rainwater
Population density -
Number of people per square km
Why are the UK’s cities located where they are?
- London is close to the M25, easy access. It has multiple airports. Thamesport increases container trade.
- B’ham close to M6, easy access. Near a coalfield, historically used for power. Has an airport.
B’ham’s population over time
Risen by 4% since 1981
Birmingham’s location
- West Midlands
- Lots of motorways e.g M6 (goes north), M42 (goes east)
- M40 can take you to London
stats
Birmingham’s importance - SHOPPING
- 34 million visit B’ham every year to shop
- Grand central cost £150m
- £1.64b spent per year in B’ham shopping
- 1000 new jobs were created as a result of the new Grand Central
stats
Birmingham’s importance - TOURISM
- 37.2 million visit Birmingham per year
- Bull is in the top 10 most photogrpahed structures in the world.
stats
Birmingham’s importance - ARCHITECTURE
- ‘UK Capital’ of modern architecture.
- Library was nominated for a world architecture award.
stats
Birmingham’s importance - TRANSPORT
- Queen opened the new New St station in Nov 2015 (cost £600m)
- HS2 railway in Birmingham.
Positive impacts of migration in B’ham:
- Large variety of cultures brings a rich food culture such as the Balti Triangle.
- A range of religion > new architecture to the city (e.g mosques) and exciting celebrations e.g Diwali, Chinese NY
- Tolerance of minority groups
Negative impacts of migration in B’ham:
- Social Segregation: the seperation of a race/class in an urban area
Stats
2005 Birmingham Riots - the impact of migration
- Between Asian and Afro-Caribbean residents of Birmingham.
- A riot about the raping of a 13/14 yr old girl by 3-25 Pakistinan men.
- One died, 35 needed hospital treatment
Social Opportunites in B’HAM
- Wide range of cultures = range of ethnic restaurants and community events e.g Balti Triangle.
- Lots of museums and theatres as well as sporting and music venues.
- 5 universities and over 50,000 students = a young, dynamic city
Economic Opportunities in B’HAM
- Largest number of businesses and start-ups outside London
- Excellent transport links to the rest of the UK and continuing improvements = easy to access
Environmental Opportunities in B’HAM
- 500 parks and more trees than any city in Europe
- Energy Recovery Facility takes 350,000 tonnes of rubbish per year and converts it into electricity = more sustainable waste disposal
- Increase in investment of brownfield sites e.g Bull Ring = more cafes, restaurants, bars
Social Challenges in B’HAM
- Range of ethnicities are often segregated in areas around the city = social tension
- New houses are often built on greenfield land which reduces the amount of open space.
Ecomomic Challenges in B’HAM
- The decline of manufacturing industry leads to rising unemployment, poverty and urban deprivation
Environmental Challenges in B’HAM
- Declining industry can lead to the development of brownfield sites (old industrial land) = derelict sites
- New houses are often built on greenfield land, reducing the amount of open space
- 20% of all waste was recycled in B’HAM in 2015 = more waste in landfills
stats
2022 Commonwealth Games in Birmingham -
- 4.62 million people came to the city centre during the games
- 4,500 jobs created annually in preperation
- Brought in £1.2b, as well as £500m in a one-off construction benefit.
Integrated Transport Systems - TRAMS
- Links Birmingham to WBA, WVH.
- 5 million journeys during 2011/12 > saved that number of car journeys
- Lower CO2 emissions
stats
Integrated Transport Systems - TRAINS
- HS2 to London
- 3 train stations
- £600m New St redevelopment allows it to deal with 300,000 daily passengers
- Lowers need for cars and car parking
stats
Integrated Transport Systems - PEDESTRIANISATION
- Shopping area already pedestrianised, with the old library also becoming pedestrianised
- Reduces urban traffic > reduces levels of inner city pollution
stats
Integrated Transport Systems - RING ROAD
- Two ring roads: inner and middle
- Travellers are encouraged to use the middle one which reduces traffic in the city centre
Urban Greening - definition
- Any public landscaping and urban forestry projects that create mutually beneficial relationships between city travellers and their environments.
5 bullet points
Why is urban greening important?
- Helps combat air/noise pollution
- Soaks up rainwater that may otherwise create flooding
- Creates a habitat for local wildlife
- Been shown to lift morale in people who see it
- Calms traffic and lessens crime
Urban Deprivation - definition
The degree to which a person or community lacks the things that are essential for a decent life. For example… food, water, shelter, warmth, safety, education, healthcare
Distribution of deprivation across Birmingham
- Central B’ham has most deprived areas e.g Nechells.
- Outside of B’ham has least deprived areas e.g Sutton Four Oaks
- ANOMALY - Kingstanding’s deprivation is high because of council estates even though it’s on the outside of B’ham
Link between deprivation and unemployment
Higher deprivation = higher unemployment
Life Expectancy across Birmingham
- In the centre e.g New St, life expectancy is low at 77.
- However, if you go North to Sutton Four Oaks, the life expectancy is 84.
stats
Housing inequality in Birmingham
- Population is growing 5x faster than houses can be built
- Only 780 homes built in 2016, a growth of just 0.18%
- Population grew by 10,000, a growth of 0.9%
Education challenges in Birmingham
- Number of pupils achieving expected standard is generally higher in N/S of B’ham rather than the centre
What is dereliction?
- The state of having been abandoned and become dilapidated (run down)
Social + environmental problems of dereiction -
Rats, graffiti, crime (vandalism), drug havens. These all deter businesses
Brown field (definition) -
- A previously developed piece of lands now available for re-development.
Green-field definition -
- An undeveloped piece of land with proposed first time development.
Brown-field positives
- Providing public transport networks is easier in central areas where the population densities are high
- New employment opportunites
- New housing can lead to gentrification (old housing done up) > crime rates lower
- Eases pressure on greenfield sites
- More sustainable
- Redevelopment results in more people coming to an area
Brown-field negatives
- House prices increase in inner city areas > locals may not be able to afford houses > council can’t provide for them
- Issue of contamination and making sites safe for redevelopment
Green-field positives
- Greenfield sites on edge of towns may have better access
- Less congestion
- More pleasant environment
- Room to expand
- Easier to build on
- Science Parks favour green-field sites
Green-field negatives
- Not sustainable > too much pressure on the rural-urban fringe
- New drainage, electricty and roads would have to be produced
- ‘Sucks’ out the core of towns as shops locate on the edge of towns/cities
Waste disposal
- Average UK waste production is 409kg per person
- It is 695kg per person in B’ham.
How to reduce waste disposal
Recycle food (a lot can be recycled by composting) and give families compost bins as 30% of waste disposal in Birmingham is through food
Urban Sprawl (definition) -
The spread of cities, buildings and houses into an area that used to be countryside, consuming smaller villages and towns.
Causes of urban sprawl:
- Rise in population: local community sopreads farther from city centres
- Lower Land Rates: Lower cost of land in outer suburbs because city centres have made people want to venture out
- Lower Property Taxes: lower than in cities
- Rise in Standard of Living: people have the ability to pay more to commute/travel
- Consumer Preferences: HIC people like larger homes and these aren’t as readily available in city centres
- Lack of Urban Planning: cutting of trees, long traffic jams, poor infrastructure force people to move out
Consequences of Urban Sprawl:
- Increase in public expenditure: tax payer pays for this
- Environmental Issues: Displacing wildlife
- Impact on social life: less neighbours, people become less social
- Increased Traffic: more car usage more often leads to more traffic. Air pollution and more accidents.
- Health Issues: people doing less walking causes them to become more overweight
- Improved Infrastructure: increased spending on roads and electricity etc
Dormitory towns -
Places where more people work from home and has good links to cities (the town is pretty dead as everyone living there doesn’t work there).
What do dormitory towns tend to be?
- Outside the green belt
- Close to a motorway or main road
- In a rural location
- These can change the look, feel, character and population of these areas. This is known as counterurbanisation.
Counterurbanisation (definition)
The movement of people out of the city into surrounding settlements within commuable distance
Settlement before counterurbanisation:
- Close-knit community
- Distinctive architecture
- Primary jobs e.g farming, crafts.
- Local work
- Rural bus service, narrow roads
- Village shop, small school, village hall
- Quiet, low pollution, open spaces
Settlement after counterurbanisation:
- Professionals, executives
- Swamped local community
- Detached houses, renovated cottages
- More noise and pollution
- Loss of open, green space
- Closure of basic shops due to people having cars, travelling to major supermarkets.
Why was the redevelopment of Grand Central needed?
- New St voted ugliest station in UK.
- Designed for 60,000 per day but 170,000 visited per day > overcrowded
- A new train left every 37 seconds
- Palisades (old shopping centre) had poor environmental quality and lots of shops were vacant
Factors that made the Grand Central redevelopment sustainable
- Made of panels of ETFE (recyclable plastic that lets in light, maintains heat loss > improves environmental quality)
- 60% of rainwater harvested used to flush toilets
- Land use = shops, restaurants > promotes the area as a social space
What did the Grand Central redevelopment project involve doing?
- 5 years, £600m
- 36 new escalators and 15 new lifts to improve access to trains
- 300,000 pasengers per day can be handled
- 1000 permanent jobs
- High end shops e.g Joules
- Designed around the flagship John Lewis, built on South Side to encourage regeneration
Definition of Sustainability
Looking after the needs of today without reducing opportunities for the future
What might a city have to do to be sustainable?
Uses less resources and prodcues less waste than an unsustainable city
Environmental ‘Leg’ of a sustainable city:
- Low/zero pollution and waste
- Renewable Energy
- Conservation
- Restoration
Economic ‘Leg’ of a sustainable city:
- Good jobs
- Fair wages
- Security
- Infrastructure
- Fairtrade
Social ‘Leg’ of a sustainable city:
- Working conditions
- Health + Education
- Community and Culture
- Social Justice
10 things
Transport Solutions in Curitiba, Brazil
- Integrated transport
- 5 main road axis
- Bus only lanes
- One fare for everywhere
- Bigger buses instead of a subway
- 500 to 2000 people per day on normal buses
- 3000 on an articulated (big) bus
- Bi-articulated carry 4000 per day.
- Raised bus stops (Disabilities)
- Travel time down 1/3
Open spaces in Curitiba, Brazil
- ‘Solution of the parks’ > green paces.
- Turns river banks into parks
- Thousands of trees planted
Waste management in Curitiba, Brazil
- Waste separated into organic and inorganic
- Recyclers and rubbish collectors started in 1980s (early)
- Enough recyclables to fill several thousand skyscrapers
- The recyclables go to a recycling plant which provides jobs
- 2/3 of waste is recycled
Education/Industry in Curitiba, Brazil
- Library
- Museum
Additional Information about Curitiba, Brazil
- People are important
- Change should be participatery and small scale.
- Low rates of pollution
