Unit Two - Causal reasoning

Question 1

causal argument

Answer 1

a form of inductive reasoning where the conclusion is a causal claim.

Question 2

causal claim

Answer 2

statement about the cause of something.

Question 3

minimal criterion of causality

Answer 3

Two states of affairs are related as cause and

effect when they are constantly conjoined.

Question 4

Constant conjunction

Answer 4

situation where, whenever one state of affairs occurs, so does another.

Question 5

necessary condition

Answer 5

of some state of affairs is something without which it

could not occur.

Question 6

sufficient condition

Answer 6

of some state of affairs is one which guarantees that it

will occur.

Question 7

individually necessary

Answer 7

set of conditions individually necessary when each of them, considered alone, is a necessary condition.

Question 8

jointly sufficient

Answer 8

A set of conditions are jointly sufficient when all of them, considered together, constitutes a sufficient condition.

Question 9

background condition

Answer 9

a condition of some state of affairs which is

not immediately relevant to our causal reasoning.

Question 10

proximate cause

Answer 10

a condition of some state of affairs which directly

proceeds it as the most immediate condition which determines whether it will occur.

Question 11

controllable condition

Answer 11

a condition of some state of affairs which

can readily be changed, or is being changed, in the context of our causal reasoning.

Question 12

method of agreement

Answer 12

states that if there is some factor (F) which is the only relevant and common factor among multiple occurrences of some state of affairs (S), then F is the cause of S.

Question 13

method of difference

Answer 13

states that if there is some factor (F) which is the only relevant and common factor present in cases where some state of affairs (S) occurs but absent where S doesn’t occur, then F is the cause
of S.

Question 14

method of agreement and difference

Answer 14

is when both the method of agreement and the method of difference are used.

Question 15

method of concomitant variation

Answer 15

states that if there is some factor (F) whose changes are correlated with changes in some state of affairs (S), then F is the cause of S.

Question 16

Misidentifying relevant factors (common errors)

Answer 16

occurs when we include irrelevant factors or omit relevant factors in our causal reasoning.

Question 17

Confusing correlation for causation (common errors)

Answer 17

occurs when a coincidence (without causal relation) between two factors misleads us into thinking there is a
causal relation between them.

Question 18

Confusing cause and effect (common errors)

Answer 18

occurs when a causal relation exists between two factors but we misidentify which is the cause.

Question 19

Failing to identify a common causal factor (common errors)

Answer 19

occurs when there is a coincidence (without causal
relation) between two factors because both are
caused by a third factor, but we do not identify
this third factor and mistakenly conclude there is
a causal relation between the first two.

Question 20

Post hoc ergo propter hoc (common errors)

Answer 20

occurs when one factor precedes another (without being its cause) and this leads us to mistakenly conclude that it is
its cause.