Unit II Review Flashcards
Inflammation Signs
-redness and heat: increase in blood flow
-swelling: increased capillary permeability
-pain: tissue fluid pressure and inflammatory chemicals
Margination
WBC sticking to endothelium during inflammation
Antigen
molecule capable of binding to T or B cell receptor
T Cell Activation
requires foreign antigen to have APC
APC
typically is an infected cell, B cell, or macrophage
-must have MHC with it (Class I or II)
What does the ER produce?
Class II MHC proteins and then fragments bind -> displayed on plasma membrane
Abnormal peptides from Class I are displayed by?
Class I MHC proteins on plasma membrane
Helper T Cells
activation requires APC
effector cells secrete cytokines
they help activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells
Cytotoxic T Cells
activation requires exposure to antigen and cytokine stimulation
-cancer/infected cells secrete perforin = produce memory cells
Memory T Cells
results in more cytotoxic T cells
Cell-Mediated Immunity Steps
- pathogen enters body + phagocytized by APC
- antigen presented to T cell = secretes cytokines
- cytokines activate cytotoxic T cell
- proliferation occurs = destroy cells that are infected
- differentiation = produces memory cells
B Cells
-activation requires exposure to antigen, cytokines from helper T cell
-differentiation = plasma proteins (secrete antibodies) and memory cells
Antibodies
gamma globulin plasma proteins
four polypeptides (2 heavy, 2 light)
regions (constant = same antibody, variable = different)
two binding sites
Antibody-Mediated Summary Steps
- B cell binds to and engulfs antigen
- B cell displays antigen to helper T cell
- helper T cell secretes cytokines to activate B cell
- proliferation and differentiation occur
Nutrients
substances we get energy and building materials from
Digestive Tract Wall
-Mucosa: SCE, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae — function: secretion, absorption, protection
-Submucosa: dense irregular connective tissue
-Muscularis Externa: inner circular, outer longitudinal layers — function: mixing movements, propelling, peristalsis, segmentation (small intestine)
-Serosa: SSE and areolar tissue
Tongue
Components
papillae with taste buds
lingual frenulum
lingual tonsils
Salivary Glands
Names
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
Salivary Glands
Secretions
-Serous cell: cleanses mouth, salivary amylase beings carbohydrate digestion, lysozyme destroys bacteria
-Mucous: buffers pH, provides lubrication, binds food into bolus
During swallowing…
tongue pushes bolus to oropharynx
uvula blocks nasopharynx
epiglottis blocks opening to larynx
Esophagus
job
transport bolus from pharynx to larynx
passes through esophageal hiatus of diaphragm
appears collapsed
Stomach
functions
mix food with gastric juice to form chyme
chemical digestion of proteins begins
limited absorption
distention and storage
Stomach
structures
rugae
oblique muscle layer
greater and lesser curvatures
regions - cardium, fundus, body, pylorus
Stomach
gastric glands
gastric glands secrete gastric juice through gastric pits
Gastric juice components
Chief cells - secrete pepsinogen
Parietal cells - secrete HCl (converts pepsinogen to pepsin), secrete factor for b12 absorption
G cells - secrete gastrin
Regulation of Gastric Juice Secretion
mechanisms
- Neural: parasympathetic impulses promote, sympathetic impulses inhibit
- Hormonal: gastrin promotes secretion, CCK + gastric inhibitory peptide + secretin = inhibit gastrin secretion
Regulation of Gastric Juice Secretion
Phases
- Cephalic: parasympathetic impulses stimulate
- Gastric: stretching of stomach stimulates, gastrin stimulates secretion
- Intestinal (chyme enters small intestine): intestinal gastrin stimulates, CCK + secretin + gastric inhibitory peptide = inhibit gastric secretion
Small Intestine Structure
-regions: duodenum (25cm), jejunum (2+m), ileum (3+m)
-circular folds, villi, microvilli increase surface absorption area
-villus contains capillaries and lateal
-intestinal glands occur at base of villi
-digestive enzymes are bound to microvilli
Small Intestine Function
-chemical digestion of proteins, lipid, carbohydrates
-absorption = monosaccharides and amino acids cross mucosa -> move into capillaries -> transported to liver by hepatic portal vein
-secretion: watery fluid to dissolve chemicals, mucus for protection, digestive hormones
Fats collect in clusters encased in proteins to form…
chylomicrons
Large Intestine Functions
-compaction and defecation
-mucus secretion: protects tissues, neutralizes pH, bind feces
-absorption: water by osmosis, electrolytes by active transport
Large Intestine Parts
-cecum with appendix (ileocecal valve)
-colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid)
-rectum and anal canal
Large Intestine Wall Structure
mucosa = SCE
no villi
longitudinal muscle bands = teniae coli
pouches = haustra
Liver Structure
-branches from hepatic artery = O2 input
-branches from hepatic portal vein = nutrient input
-liver sinusoids
-central vein (output leading to hepatic vein that leads to inferior vena cava)
Main Functions of Liver
-synthesizing plasma proteins/clotting factors
-phagocytizing damaged RBC
-storing blood and inactivating toxins
Primary Liver Digestive Functions
BG
-maintenance of blood glucose level (controlled by insulin and glucagon)
–glycogensis = glucose -> glycogen
–glycogenlysis = glycogen -> glucose
–glyconeogenesis = making of glucose
Primary Liver Digestive Functions
Protein
-protein metabolism
–deamination of amino acids and production of urea
–amino acid conversion
–plasma protein synthesis
Primary Liver Digestive Functions
Bile
-bile secretion
–functions as emulsifier
–associates with lipid forming nutrients
–lipase works at surface to digest lipids
Gallbladder
Function
Ducts
Gallstones
Bile release
-stores and concentrates bile
-ducts: cystic, hepatic, common hepatic, common bile, hepatopancreatic ampulla/sphincter
-gallstones form when cholesterol precipitates
-bile release stimulated by CCK
Pancreas
duct work
-pancreatic duct -> hepatopancreatic ampulla/sphinter -> lumen of duodenum
What do hepatic ducts do?
Carry bile from the liver
Pancreatic Juice components
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreatic lipase
Nucleases
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Carboxypeptidase
What is the common bile duct?
common hepatic duct + cystic duct
What is the hepatopancreatic amupulla?
function
common bile + pancreatic duct
empties bile and pancreatic secretions into duodenum
Hormonal Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion
acidic chyme in duodenum causes it to secrete…
CCK = stimulates pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes
Secretin = stimulates pancreas to secrete bicarbonate ions
Pancreas
Secretions for digestive and endocrin
Digestive (exocrine): secretion of pancreatic juice into small intestine
Endocrine: secretion of insulin and glucagon into blood
Components of Respiration (5)
ventilation
external respiration
transportation
internal respiration
cellular respiration
Ventilation
breathing
External Respiration
gas exchange in pulmonary capillaries
Transportation
gases between the lungs and body cells
Internal Respiration
gas exchange in the systemic capillaries
Cellular Respiration
production of ATP using energy from nutrient molecules
Salivary Amylase
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes
serous cells
mouth
starch, glycogen
maltose
carbohydrate digestion
Pepsin
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes
stomach
stomach
protein
peptides
secretes as pepsinogen - activated by HCl
Sucrase
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes
small intestine
small intestine
digests sucrose
glucose, fructose
brush-border enzyme
Maltase
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes
small intestine
small intestine
digests maltose
glucose, glucose
brush-border enzymes
Lactase
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes
small intestine
small intestine
digests lactose
glucose, galactose
brush-border enzyme
Peptidases
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes
small intestine
small intestine
peptides
amino acids
brush border enzyme
Intestinal Lipase
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes
small intestine
small intestine
triglycerides
fatty acid and monoglyceride
brush border enzyme
Functions of Respiratory System
-area for gas exchange between air and circulating blood
-protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temperature changes
-defending system from invasion of pathogens
-producing sounds for speaking, singing
What type of epithelium in the pharynx
SSE
Small branches of bronchi - what kind of epithelium
Cuboidal epithelium
Respiratory Structures
upper
-nose with nares (opening to nasal cavity)
-nasal cavity with septum and nasal meatuses
-pharynx
Respiratory Structures
lower
-larynx (voice box)
–thyroid and cricoid cartilage
–epiglottis and glottis
–vocal cords
-trachea with tracheal cartilages
-bronchial tree
-lungs
Bronchial Tree
all components
-Primary bronchi = 1 per lung
-Secondary Bronchi = 1 per lung
-Tertiary Bronchi = 1 per bronchopulmonary segment
Bronchioles
Terminal Bronchioles
Respiratory Bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs = 1 per alveolar duct
Alveoli (300 million) = site for external respiration
Lungs
location
layers
hilus
lobe amounts
-in thoracic cavity, separated by mediastinum
-visceral pleura, parietal pleura, pleural cavity filled with serous fluid in between
-hilus: region where bronchi and blood vessels enter
-left 2, right 3
Lungs
respiratory membrane
alveolar cell types
-wall of alveolus + wall of pulmonary capillary - gases diffuse
-type I pneumocytes (aka alveolar cell) = form alveolar wall
-type II pneumocytes (aka alveolar cell) = secrete surfactant (coats lining and decreases surface tension)
-macrophages phagocytize particles
Breathing Mechanism
inspiration
what does muscle contraction do to diaphragm and thoracic cage
-muscle contraction expands the thoracic cavity
—diaphragm contraction moves diaphragm downward
—external intercostal contraction raises thoracic cage
-visceral pleurae stick to parietal pleurae due to surface tension so thoracic cavity expands
Breathing Mechanism
inspiration
pressure on air in lungs does what?
maximal inspiration involves contraction of what?
-pressure on air in the lungs decreases below atmospheric pressure and air moves to lungs
-maximal inspiration involves contraction of sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis minor muscles
Breathing Mechanism
expiration (exhalation)
breathing muscles relaxed leading to?
normal expiration is what process?
forced expiration is accomplished by?
-breathing muscles relax = elastic recoil causes lungs to return to regular size = force air out of lungs
-normal expiration is a passive process
-forced expiration is accomplished by contraction of the internal intercostal muscles and the muscles of the abdominal wall
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
TV
IRV
IC
-Tidal Volume = normal breathing
-Inspiratory Reserve Volume = from normal breathing level and up
-Inspiratory Capacity = normal breathing to inhale as much as you can TV + IRV = IC
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
ERV
EC
VC
-Expiratory Reserve Volume = from normal breathing level and down
-Expiratory Capacity = normal breathing to let air out TV + ERV = EC
-Vital Capacity = taking a deep breath in and out IRV + TV + ERV = VC (max amount of air exchange at one time)
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
RV
TLC
-Residual Volume = volume of air left in lungs after forceful respiration (after you exhale as much as you can)
-Total Lung Capacity = VC + RV
TV in mL
500mL
Gas Transport
oxygen gas
-hemoglobin (Hb) carries 98%
–oxyhemoglobin
–deoxyhemoglobin
-increased blood CO2, acidity, high temp = promote oxyhemoglobin dissociation in systemic capillaries
Gas Transport
carbon monoxide
-CO
-product of burning fuel
-Hb has greater affinity for CO than O2
Gas Transport
how carbon dioxide is transported
-three ways
1. dissolved in plasma 7%
2. bound to amino groups in Hb forming carbaminohemoglobin 23%
3. as bicarbonate ions in the plasma 70%
Control of Breathing
respiratory centers
factors affecting respiratory centers
-located in brain stem (pons and medulla oblongata)
-sends impulses to muscles involved
-high CO2 or H+ (send impulses faster to get CO2 out)
-low O2
Where does chemical digestion of protein begin?
Stomach
