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Anatomy & Physiology II > Unit II > Flashcards

Unit II Flashcards

1
Q

Infection
definition

A

presence and multiplication of pathogens

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2
Q

Pathogen
definition

A

disease causing agent

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3
Q

what primarily defends the body from infection

A

spleen and lymph nodes

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4
Q

mechanisms of defense

A

innate (nonspecific) defense
adaptive (specific) defense

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5
Q

Innate (nonspecific) defense

A

“inborn” protection against many types of pathogens
^^don’t develop as a result

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6
Q

Adaptive (specific) defense
2 forms of immunity?

A

“learned” protection against specific pathogens provided by T and B cells
-cell mediated immunity
-antibody mediated immunity

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7
Q

Cell-mediated immunity

A

T cell function
cells attack pathogens and attack through phagocytosis or release of chemical toxins

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8
Q

Antibody-mediated immunity

A

B cell function
secrete antibodies, work indirectly, attack by circulating antibodies

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9
Q

Innate (nonspecific) defenses
what kinds of natural things help defend?

A

physical barriers such as skin, mucus membranes
phagocytes
immune surveillance such as natural killer cells (lymphocytes) = find abnormal cells and cause destruction
interferons (chemicals released to protect you)
complement system
inflammation
fever (low grade fever beneficial for combatting infection)

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10
Q

Natural Killer cell process

A

-NK cell releases perforins, which stick to each other and form a hole in enemy cell membrane
-granzymes from NK cell enter perforin hole and degrade enemy cell enzymes
-enemy cell dies
-macrophage engulfs and digests dying cell

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11
Q

Inflammation
signs and reasons why
goal of inflammation
would causes come from?

A

-Redness and heat (due to increased blood flow to site)
-swelling (due to increased capillary permeability)
-Pain (due to tissue fluid pressure and inflammatory chemicals stimulating pain receptors)
-goal: get WBC to area to fight bad cells
-come from blood, mast cells, WBC, damaged tissues

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12
Q

Complement system
what is it
end result
what does it promote

A

-involves large number of plasma proteins
-end result: formation of a membrane attack complex that forms holes in pathogen cell membranes
-promotes phagocytosis, inflammation, chemotaxis

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13
Q

Inflammation Chart Diagram

A

Tissue damage occurs –> bacteria enters tissue –> chemical mediators are released (WBC, damaged cells) –> chemotaxis, increased vascular permeability (capillaries leaky), increased blood flow –> increased numbers of white blood cells and chemical mediators at site –> bacteria are contained, destroyed, and phagocytized –> either bacteria gone = tissue repair OR bacteria remain = additional chemical mediators activated

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14
Q

Adaptive (Specific) Immunity
terms

A

Adaptive immunity
antigen
activation
proliferation
differentiation

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15
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

resistance to a specific pathogen

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16
Q

Antigen

A

-any molecule capable of binding to a T cell or B receptor
-usually part of a pathogen (ex. bacterial or viral protein)

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17
Q

Activation

A

change in behavior of lymphocyte at the onset of immune response

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18
Q

Proliferation

A

production of a large number of identical lymphocytes (Clone)

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19
Q

Differentiation

A

production of cells with different functions from a single line

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20
Q

T Cell characteristics

A

-produced in red bone marrow
-mature in thymus
70-80% of circulating lymphocytes - most common
-many reside in lymph nodes and spleen
-millions of different T cell receptors that bind to antigens
-another cell has to show to T cell

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21
Q

Antigen Presenting Cell info

A

-typically a macrophage, B cell, or infected cell
-the antigen is presented to T cell in combination with a major histocompatibility complex
-antigen “selects” the T cell that will be activated and proliferate to form a clone (clonal selection)

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22
Q

Major histocompatibility complex
what are the classes?

A

Class I - on nucleated body cells and platelets
Class II - on antigen presenting cells

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23
Q

Main Types of T cells

A

helper t cells
cytotoxic t cells
memory t cells

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24
Q

Helper T cells info

A

Activation requires APC
secrete cytokines that target other WBCs
activate B cells to produce antibodies
activate cytotoxic t cells
Stimulate macrophages and attract other WBC

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25
Q

cytotoxic t cells info

A

-activation requires - exposure to antigen and cytokines from helper t cell
-proliferation produces a clone of cells that bind to cancerous or virally infected cells and secrete perforin
-differentiation produces memory t cells

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26
Q

memory t cells info

A

-respond to subsequent exposure to pathogen
-activation and proliferation results in the production of a new clone of cytotoxic t cells

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27
Q

cell mediated immunity - summary

A

-pathogen enters body -> phagocytized by APC
-APC presents antigen to helper T will with a receptor that fits antigen -> this helper cell secretes cytokines
-cytokines activate cytotoxic t cells and then produce clone
-splits into memory cells -> take part next time, effector cells =take part now

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28
Q

B cells info

A

-activation requires
—–exposure to antigen
——cytokines from a helper T cell
-proliferation produces clone
-differentiation produces plasma cells (secrete antibodies) and memory cells (respond to next infection)

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29
Q

Antibodies info

A

-gamma globulin plasma proteins
-four polypeptides (or 2x or 5x)
—two heavy chains, two light chains
-polypeptide regions
—-constant (same for each antibody of a class)
—-variable (different for each antibody)
-two antigen binding sites
-classes of immunoglobulins (IgG most important 80-85%)

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30
Q

IgG info

A

most important 80-85%
activates complement, promotes phagocytosis, can cross placenta and provide immune protection

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31
Q

Actions of antibodies

A

-inflammation - prevent spread of antigens
-chemotaxis - attracts WBC to area
-agglutination - antigens clump
-precipitation - antigens become insoluble
-neutralization - antibodies coat and prevent infection

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32
Q

where do all blood cells originate from

A

red bone marrow

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33
Q

how are T and B cells transported to the lymphatic organs

A

through the blood

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34
Q

what are antigens presented by Class I MHC proteins triggered by
-what does the infection result in
-end result

A

viral or bacterial infection of body cell
-results in abnormal peptides in cytoplasm
-end result: abnormal peptides are displayed by Class I MCH proteins on plasma membrane

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35
Q

process of b cells

A

antigen recognition, b cell activation, clone formation, differentiation (most become plasma cells), action (plasma cells release antibodies that can bind)

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36
Q

antibody mediated summary

A

-b cell binds to and engulfs antigen
-b cell displays antigen in combination with MHC to helper t cell with TCR
-activated helper T cell secrete cytokines to activate b cell
-proliferation
-differentiation produces plasma cells (secrete antibodies) and memory cells

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37
Q

Immune responses
what are their names

A

Primary immune response
Secondary immune response

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38
Q

Primary immune response

A

-Occurs first time pathogen is encountered
-antibodies detected in 5-10 days

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39
Q

Secondary immune response

A

-occurs after first time pathogen is encountered (3,4,5th…)
-antibodies detected in 1-2 days

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40
Q

Immunity classification - acquired adaptive
what are the names of each

A

-active immunity –> breaks down into neutral and artificial
-passive immunity –> breaks down into neutral and artificial

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41
Q

Active immunity definition

A

immunity provided by individual’s own immune system
-self immune system learns

42
Q

Passive immunity definition

A

immunity is transferred from another person or animal
-immune system doesn’t learn

43
Q

Active immunity (natural)

A

antigens are introduced through natural exposure
-immunity you develop getting sick

44
Q

Active immunity (artificial)

A

antigens are deliberately introduced in vaccine
-vaccine giving you antigen to make antibodies

45
Q

Passive immunity (natural)

A

antibodies from mother are transferred to child across placenta or in breastmilk
-baby never gets infect, just gets immunity from mom

46
Q

Passive immunity (artificial)

A

antibodies produced by another person or animal are injected
-antibodies premade from other source

47
Q

Nutrients

A

substances in food where we get energy and building materials (like cell parts, tissues)

48
Q

2 main categories of digestive system

A

Digestive tract (9m)
Accessory structures

49
Q

what does the digestive tract include (6)

A

mouth
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine (longest part)
large intestine

50
Q

what does the accessory structures of the digestive tract include(6)

A

teeth
tongue
salivary glands
pancreas
liver
gallbladder

51
Q

Digestive tract wall names (deep to superficial)

A

Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis Externa
Serosa

52
Q

Mucosa
structure
function

A

structure: simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria (areolar tissue), muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle)

function: absorption, secretion, protection

53
Q

Submucosa
what is it made up of

A

dense irregular connective tissue with glands, blood vessels, nerves, etc.

54
Q

Muscularis externa
structure
function

A

structure: inner circular smooth muscle layer, outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer

function: mixing movements occur in stomach, propelling movements (peristalsis - esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine) — (segmentation - small intestine)

55
Q

Serosa
what is it made up of

A

simple squamous epithelium and areolar tissue

56
Q

Functions of digestive tract (7)

A

ingestion
mechanical processing (chewing, moving food)
digestion
secretion (release into lumen)
absorption (of nutrients from digestive)
compaction (forming feces)
defecation (elimination of feces from body)

57
Q

Mouth (Oral Cavity)
function and lining

A

-functions in ingestion and mechanical processing
-Lining - both keratinizing and nonkeratinizing stratified squamous epithelium

58
Q

mouth (oral cavity)
palate info
teeth info
tongue info

A

palate: hard, soft with uvula, palatine tonsils provide immune surveillance

teeth: deciduous (baby teeth) - incisors, cuspids, molars
adult: incisors, cuspids, premolars (molars in deciduous teeth), molars

tongue: papillae with taste buds, lingual frenulum (tissue above top teeth), lingual tonsils

59
Q

average number of teeth in deciduous and adult teeth

A

deciduous 20
adult 32

60
Q

Salivary Glands
how many major glands
names

A

6 (occur in pairs)
parotid
submandibular
sublingual

61
Q

Salivary Glands
Secretions and functions of those

A

Serous (runny) secretion
–cleanses mouth, dissolves food
–salivary amylase begins carbohydrate digestion

Mucous (sticky) secretion
–buffers pH
–binds food into bolus (mass of food to swallow)
–provides lubrication

62
Q

Salivary Amylase
source
location of action
substrates
products

A

serous cells
mouth
starch and glycogen
maltose

63
Q

Pepsin
source
location of action
substrates
products
extra notes

A

gastric glands
stomach
proteins
peptides
secreted as pepsinogen, activated by HCl

64
Q

Pharynx
where is it
names of regions

A

vertical tube behind nose and mouth
nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

65
Q

Nasopharynx
location
passageway for
structures

A

behind nasal cavity
air
pharyngeal tonsils, opening to auditory tubes

66
Q

Oropharynx
location
passageway for

A

posterior to oral cavity
air and food

67
Q

Laryngopharynx
location
passagway for
structures

A

inferior to oropharynx
air and food
glottis

68
Q

During swallowing..
what does tongue do
what does uvula do
what does epiglottis do

A

-pushes bolus into oropharynx
-blocks opening to nasopharynx
-blocks opening to larynx

69
Q

Esophagus
what does it do
where does movement occur
lined by
where does it pass through
how does it appear

A

-transports bolus from pharynx to stomach
-via peristalsis
-nonkeratinizing stratified squamous epithelium
-passes through esophageal hiatus of diaphragm
-normally collapsed

70
Q

What do the two esophageal sphincters do?

A

-upper esophageal sphincter at superior end prevents air from entering esophagus
-lower sphincter at inferior end prevents stomach contents from entering esophagus

71
Q

Stomach
functions

A

-mixes food with gastric juice forming chyme
-chemical digestion of proteins begins
-limited absorption (water, salts, etc)
-distention and storage

72
Q

Stomach
structures

A

-rugae (stripes, lines)
-most inner muscle layer = oblique of muscularis externa
-greater and lesser curvatures
-regions (cardia, fundus, body, pylorus)
-gastric glands secrete gastric juice through gastric pits

73
Q

Gastric juice components
what kinds of cells
what do they secrete

A

Chief cells
-secrete pepsinogen, an inactive precursor of the protein digesting enzyme protein

Parietal cells
-secrete HCl which converts pepsinogen to pepsin
-secrete instrinsic factor for b12 absorption in small intesting (needed for making RBC)

G-cells
-secrete gastric hormone gastrin

74
Q

Mechanisms of regulation of gastric juice secretion

A

Neural: ANS (system) - parasympathetic impulses promote gastric secretion, sympathetic impulses inhibit gastric secretion

Hormonal: CCK, gastirc inhibitory peptide, and secretin from duodenum inhibit gastric secretion - gastrin from stomach and small intestine promotes gastric secretion

75
Q

phases of regulation of gastric juice secretion

A

-Cephalic phase (right before eating) - parasympathetic impulses stimulate gastric secretion

-Gastric phase (food is in stomach) - stretching of stomach simulates gastric juice and gastrin secretion, gastrin stimulates gastric juice secretion

-Intestinal phase (chyme entering small intestine) - intestinal gastrin briefly stimulates gastric secretion, sympathetic impulses inhibit gastric secretion while deuodenum produces chyme

76
Q

Small intestine structure
functions
how long
regions
info

A

-functions in chemical digestion and absorption of all four types
-6 m long
-name refers to diameter
-regions (duodenum is c shaped, 25cm —– jejunum is 2+ m —– ileum is 3+ m)
-circular folds, villi, and microvilli increase surface area for absorption
-villus contains capillaries and lacteal
-digestive enzymes (brush border) are bound to microvilli

77
Q

Small intestine
function

A

chemical digestion of carbs, proteins, lipids
-absorption (monosaccharides and amino acids cross mucosa and are transported to liver by hepatic portal vein)

-secretion
–water fluid to dissolve chemicals
–mucus for protection
–digestive hormones

78
Q

Large Intestine
functions
how name is referred

A

-compaction and defacation
-mucus secretion (protect tissue, neutralize pH, bind feces)
-absorption (water by osmosis, electrolytes by active transport)
-name refers to diameter, not length

79
Q

Large intestine
parts
wall structure

A

-cecum with appendix (ileocecal valve)
-colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid)
-rectum
-anal canal

-mucosa contains SCE
-no villi
-bands of longitudinal muscle = teniae coli
-pouches = haustra

80
Q

Liver
structure

A

-four lobes (right, left, quadrate, caudate) that are divided into lobules
-lobule structures
–hepatocytes (liver cells)
–branches from hepatic artery (O2 input)
–branches from hepatic portal vein (nutrient input)
–liver sinusoids
–central vein (output leading to hepatic vein)
–bile canaliculi –> bile ductules –> bile ducts

81
Q

Sucrase
source
location of action
substrates
products
extra notes

A

small intestine
small intestine
digests sucrose
glucose, fructose
brush border enzyme

82
Q

Maltose
source
location of action
substrates
products
extra notes

A

small intestine
small intestine
digests maltose
glucose, glucose
brush border enzyme

83
Q

Lactase
source
location of action
substrates
products
extra notes

A

small intestine
small intestine
digests lactose
glucose, galactose
brush border enzyme

84
Q

Peptidases
source
location of action
substrates
products
extra notes

A

small intestine
small intestine
peptides
amino acids
brush border enzyme

85
Q

Intestinal Lipase
source
location of action
substrates
products
extra notes

A

small intestine
small intestine
triglycerides
fatty acid and monoglyceride
brush border enzyme

86
Q

Digestive/Metabolic Functions of Liver (5)

A

-synthesizing plasma proteins/clotting factors
-phagocytizing damaged red blood cells
-storing cells
-inactivating toxins
-storing iron, fat-soluble vitamins, glycogen, lipids

87
Q

Primary Liver Digestive Functions
BGL

A

-Maintenance of blood glucose level (controlled by insulin and glucagon)
—glycogenesis (glucose to glycogen)
—glycogenolysis (glycogen to glucose)
—gluconeogenesis (make glucose from lipids/amino acids)

88
Q

Primary Liver Digestive Functions
Protein

A

-Protein metabolism
—deamination of amino acids and production of urea
—amino acid conversion (nonessential)
—plasma protein synthesis

89
Q

Primary Liver Digestive Functions
Lipid

A

-Lipid metabolism
—synthesis of phospholipids and cholesterol
—conversion of carbs and proteins into triglycerides for energy storage
—fatty acids used for energy

90
Q

Primary Liver Digestive Functions
Bile

A

-Bile secretion
—functions as emulsifier
—forms micelles
—lipase works to digest lipids

91
Q

Gallbladder
function
associated ducts
others

A

-stores and concentrates bile from liver
-associated ducts:
—cystic: attached to gallbladder
—hepatic: come from liver lobes
—common hepatic: hepatic ducts merge
—common bile: cystic and common hepatic ducts meet
—hepatopancretic ampulla/sphincter: near wall of small intestine

-fills with bile backflow
-gallstones form when cholesterol precipitates
-bile release stimulated by CCK

92
Q

Pancreas
functions

A

Digestive system (exocrine) function = secretion of pancreatic juice into small intestine

Endocrine system function = secretion of insulin and glucagon into blood

93
Q

Pancreas
duct work

A

pancreatic duct -> hepatopancreatic ampulla/sphincter -> lumen of duodenum

94
Q

Pancreatic juice components

A

-pancreatic amylase
-pancreatic lipase
-nucleases (2)

-proteolytic enzymes
–trypsin
–chymotrypsin
–carboxypeptidase

-bicarbonate iones (neutralize pH of chyme and inactive pepsin)

95
Q

Hormonal Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion
secretions

A

Acidic chyme in the duodenum causes the duodenum to secrete…
-cholesystokinin = stimulates pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes

-secretin = stimulates pancreas to secrete bicarbonate ions

96
Q

Intestinal lipase
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes

A

small intestine
small intestine
triglycerides
fatty acid and monoglyceride
brush border enzyme

97
Q

Pancreatic amylase
source
location of action
substrates
products

A

pancreas
small intestine
starch, glycogen
maltose

98
Q

Nucleases
source
location of action
substrates
products

A

pancreas
small intestine
nucleic acids
nucleotides

99
Q

Trypsin
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes

A

pancreas
small intestine
proteins
peptides
secreted as trypsinogen, activated by enteropeptidase

100
Q

Chymotrypsin
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes

A

pancreas
small intestine
proteins
peptides
secreted as chymotripsinogen, activated by trypsin

101
Q

Carboxypeptidase
source
location of action
substrates
products
notes

A

pancreas
small intestine
peptides
amino acids
secreted as procarboxypeptidase, activated by trypsin

Anatomy & Physiology II (13 decks)

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