Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

Anatomy & Physiology II > Unit II > Flashcards

Unit II Flashcards

1
Q

Infection
definition

A

presence and multiplication of pathogens

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Pathogen
definition

A

disease causing agent

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

what primarily defends the body from infection

A

spleen and lymph nodes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

mechanisms of defense

A

innate (nonspecific) defense
adaptive (specific) defense

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Innate (nonspecific) defense

A

“inborn” protection against many types of pathogens
^^don’t develop as a result

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Adaptive (specific) defense
2 forms of immunity?

A

“learned” protection against specific pathogens provided by T and B cells
-cell mediated immunity
-antibody mediated immunity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Cell-mediated immunity

A

T cell function
cells attack pathogens and attack through phagocytosis or release of chemical toxins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Antibody-mediated immunity

A

B cell function
secrete antibodies, work indirectly, attack by circulating antibodies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Innate (nonspecific) defenses
what kinds of natural things help defend?

A

physical barriers such as skin, mucus membranes
phagocytes
immune surveillance such as natural killer cells (lymphocytes) = find abnormal cells and cause destruction
interferons (chemicals released to protect you)
complement system
inflammation
fever (low grade fever beneficial for combatting infection)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Natural Killer cell process

A

-NK cell releases perforins, which stick to each other and form a hole in enemy cell membrane
-granzymes from NK cell enter perforin hole and degrade enemy cell enzymes
-enemy cell dies
-macrophage engulfs and digests dying cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Inflammation
signs and reasons why
goal of inflammation
would causes come from?

A

-Redness and heat (due to increased blood flow to site)
-swelling (due to increased capillary permeability)
-Pain (due to tissue fluid pressure and inflammatory chemicals stimulating pain receptors)
-goal: get WBC to area to fight bad cells
-come from blood, mast cells, WBC, damaged tissues

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Complement system
what is it
end result
what does it promote

A

-involves large number of plasma proteins
-end result: formation of a membrane attack complex that forms holes in pathogen cell membranes
-promotes phagocytosis, inflammation, chemotaxis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Inflammation Chart Diagram

A

Tissue damage occurs –> bacteria enters tissue –> chemical mediators are released (WBC, damaged cells) –> chemotaxis, increased vascular permeability (capillaries leaky), increased blood flow –> increased numbers of white blood cells and chemical mediators at site –> bacteria are contained, destroyed, and phagocytized –> either bacteria gone = tissue repair OR bacteria remain = additional chemical mediators activated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Adaptive (Specific) Immunity
terms

A

Adaptive immunity
antigen
activation
proliferation
differentiation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

resistance to a specific pathogen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Antigen

A

-any molecule capable of binding to a T cell or B receptor
-usually part of a pathogen (ex. bacterial or viral protein)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Activation

A

change in behavior of lymphocyte at the onset of immune response

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Proliferation

A

production of a large number of identical lymphocytes (Clone)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Differentiation

A

production of cells with different functions from a single line

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

T Cell characteristics

A

-produced in red bone marrow
-mature in thymus
70-80% of circulating lymphocytes - most common
-many reside in lymph nodes and spleen
-millions of different T cell receptors that bind to antigens
-another cell has to show to T cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Antigen Presenting Cell info

A

-typically a macrophage, B cell, or infected cell
-the antigen is presented to T cell in combination with a major histocompatibility complex
-antigen “selects” the T cell that will be activated and proliferate to form a clone (clonal selection)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Major histocompatibility complex
what are the classes?

A

Class I - on nucleated body cells and platelets
Class II - on antigen presenting cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Main Types of T cells

A

helper t cells
cytotoxic t cells
memory t cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Helper T cells info

A

Activation requires APC
secrete cytokines that target other WBCs
activate B cells to produce antibodies
activate cytotoxic t cells
Stimulate macrophages and attract other WBC

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
cytotoxic t cells info
-activation requires - exposure to antigen and cytokines from helper t cell -proliferation produces a clone of cells that bind to cancerous or virally infected cells and secrete perforin -differentiation produces memory t cells
26
memory t cells info
-respond to subsequent exposure to pathogen -activation and proliferation results in the production of a new clone of cytotoxic t cells
27
cell mediated immunity - summary
-pathogen enters body -> phagocytized by APC -APC presents antigen to helper T will with a receptor that fits antigen -> this helper cell secretes cytokines -cytokines activate cytotoxic t cells and then produce clone -splits into memory cells -> take part next time, effector cells =take part now
28
B cells info
-activation requires -----exposure to antigen ------cytokines from a helper T cell -proliferation produces clone -differentiation produces plasma cells (secrete antibodies) and memory cells (respond to next infection)
29
Antibodies info
-gamma globulin plasma proteins -four polypeptides (or 2x or 5x) ---two heavy chains, two light chains -polypeptide regions ----constant (same for each antibody of a class) ----variable (different for each antibody) -two antigen binding sites -classes of immunoglobulins (IgG most important 80-85%)
30
IgG info
most important 80-85% activates complement, promotes phagocytosis, can cross placenta and provide immune protection
31
Actions of antibodies
-inflammation - prevent spread of antigens -chemotaxis - attracts WBC to area -agglutination - antigens clump -precipitation - antigens become insoluble -neutralization - antibodies coat and prevent infection
32
where do all blood cells originate from
red bone marrow
33
how are T and B cells transported to the lymphatic organs
through the blood
34
what are antigens presented by Class I MHC proteins triggered by -what does the infection result in -end result
viral or bacterial infection of body cell -results in abnormal peptides in cytoplasm -end result: abnormal peptides are displayed by Class I MCH proteins on plasma membrane
35
process of b cells
antigen recognition, b cell activation, clone formation, differentiation (most become plasma cells), action (plasma cells release antibodies that can bind)
36
antibody mediated summary
-b cell binds to and engulfs antigen -b cell displays antigen in combination with MHC to helper t cell with TCR -activated helper T cell secrete cytokines to activate b cell -proliferation -differentiation produces plasma cells (secrete antibodies) and memory cells
37
Immune responses what are their names
Primary immune response Secondary immune response
38
Primary immune response
-Occurs first time pathogen is encountered -antibodies detected in 5-10 days
39
Secondary immune response
-occurs after first time pathogen is encountered (3,4,5th...) -antibodies detected in 1-2 days
40
Immunity classification - acquired adaptive what are the names of each
-active immunity --> breaks down into neutral and artificial -passive immunity --> breaks down into neutral and artificial
41
Active immunity definition
immunity provided by individual's own immune system -self immune system learns
42
Passive immunity definition
immunity is transferred from another person or animal -immune system doesn't learn
43
Active immunity (natural)
antigens are introduced through natural exposure -immunity you develop getting sick
44
Active immunity (artificial)
antigens are deliberately introduced in vaccine -vaccine giving you antigen to make antibodies
45
Passive immunity (natural)
antibodies from mother are transferred to child across placenta or in breastmilk -baby never gets infect, just gets immunity from mom
46
Passive immunity (artificial)
antibodies produced by another person or animal are injected -antibodies premade from other source
47
Nutrients
substances in food where we get energy and building materials (like cell parts, tissues)
48
2 main categories of digestive system
Digestive tract (9m) Accessory structures
49
what does the digestive tract include (6)
mouth pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine (longest part) large intestine
50
what does the accessory structures of the digestive tract include(6)
teeth tongue salivary glands pancreas liver gallbladder
51
Digestive tract wall names (deep to superficial)
Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis Externa Serosa
52
Mucosa structure function
structure: simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria (areolar tissue), muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle) function: absorption, secretion, protection
53
Submucosa what is it made up of
dense irregular connective tissue with glands, blood vessels, nerves, etc.
54
Muscularis externa structure function
structure: inner circular smooth muscle layer, outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer function: mixing movements occur in stomach, propelling movements (peristalsis - esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine) --- (segmentation - small intestine)
55
Serosa what is it made up of
simple squamous epithelium and areolar tissue
56
Functions of digestive tract (7)
ingestion mechanical processing (chewing, moving food) digestion secretion (release into lumen) absorption (of nutrients from digestive) compaction (forming feces) defecation (elimination of feces from body)
57
Mouth (Oral Cavity) function and lining
-functions in ingestion and mechanical processing -Lining - both keratinizing and nonkeratinizing stratified squamous epithelium
58
mouth (oral cavity) palate info teeth info tongue info
palate: hard, soft with uvula, palatine tonsils provide immune surveillance teeth: deciduous (baby teeth) - incisors, cuspids, molars adult: incisors, cuspids, premolars (molars in deciduous teeth), molars tongue: papillae with taste buds, lingual frenulum (tissue above top teeth), lingual tonsils
59
average number of teeth in deciduous and adult teeth
deciduous 20 adult 32
60
Salivary Glands how many major glands names
6 (occur in pairs) parotid submandibular sublingual
61
Salivary Glands Secretions and functions of those
Serous (runny) secretion --cleanses mouth, dissolves food --salivary amylase begins carbohydrate digestion Mucous (sticky) secretion --buffers pH --binds food into bolus (mass of food to swallow) --provides lubrication
62
Salivary Amylase source location of action substrates products
serous cells mouth starch and glycogen maltose
63
Pepsin source location of action substrates products extra notes
gastric glands stomach proteins peptides secreted as pepsinogen, activated by HCl
64
Pharynx where is it names of regions
vertical tube behind nose and mouth nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
65
Nasopharynx location passageway for structures
behind nasal cavity air pharyngeal tonsils, opening to auditory tubes
66
Oropharynx location passageway for
posterior to oral cavity air and food
67
Laryngopharynx location passagway for structures
inferior to oropharynx air and food glottis
68
During swallowing.. what does tongue do what does uvula do what does epiglottis do
-pushes bolus into oropharynx -blocks opening to nasopharynx -blocks opening to larynx
69
Esophagus what does it do where does movement occur lined by where does it pass through how does it appear
-transports bolus from pharynx to stomach -via peristalsis -nonkeratinizing stratified squamous epithelium -passes through esophageal hiatus of diaphragm -normally collapsed
70
What do the two esophageal sphincters do?
-upper esophageal sphincter at superior end prevents air from entering esophagus -lower sphincter at inferior end prevents stomach contents from entering esophagus
71
Stomach functions
-mixes food with gastric juice forming chyme -chemical digestion of proteins begins -limited absorption (water, salts, etc) -distention and storage
72
Stomach structures
-rugae (stripes, lines) -most inner muscle layer = oblique of muscularis externa -greater and lesser curvatures -regions (cardia, fundus, body, pylorus) -gastric glands secrete gastric juice through gastric pits
73
Gastric juice components what kinds of cells what do they secrete
Chief cells -secrete pepsinogen, an inactive precursor of the protein digesting enzyme protein Parietal cells -secrete HCl which converts pepsinogen to pepsin -secrete instrinsic factor for b12 absorption in small intesting (needed for making RBC) G-cells -secrete gastric hormone gastrin
74
Mechanisms of regulation of gastric juice secretion
Neural: ANS (system) - parasympathetic impulses promote gastric secretion, sympathetic impulses inhibit gastric secretion Hormonal: CCK, gastirc inhibitory peptide, and secretin from duodenum inhibit gastric secretion - gastrin from stomach and small intestine promotes gastric secretion
75
phases of regulation of gastric juice secretion
-Cephalic phase (right before eating) - parasympathetic impulses stimulate gastric secretion -Gastric phase (food is in stomach) - stretching of stomach simulates gastric juice and gastrin secretion, gastrin stimulates gastric juice secretion -Intestinal phase (chyme entering small intestine) - intestinal gastrin briefly stimulates gastric secretion, sympathetic impulses inhibit gastric secretion while deuodenum produces chyme
76
Small intestine structure functions how long regions info
-functions in chemical digestion and absorption of all four types -6 m long -name refers to diameter -regions (duodenum is c shaped, 25cm ----- jejunum is 2+ m ----- ileum is 3+ m) -circular folds, villi, and microvilli increase surface area for absorption -villus contains capillaries and lacteal -digestive enzymes (brush border) are bound to microvilli
77
Small intestine function
chemical digestion of carbs, proteins, lipids -absorption (monosaccharides and amino acids cross mucosa and are transported to liver by hepatic portal vein) -secretion --water fluid to dissolve chemicals --mucus for protection --digestive hormones
78
Large Intestine functions how name is referred
-compaction and defacation -mucus secretion (protect tissue, neutralize pH, bind feces) -absorption (water by osmosis, electrolytes by active transport) -name refers to diameter, not length
79
Large intestine parts wall structure
-cecum with appendix (ileocecal valve) -colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid) -rectum -anal canal -mucosa contains SCE -no villi -bands of longitudinal muscle = teniae coli -pouches = haustra
80
Liver structure
-four lobes (right, left, quadrate, caudate) that are divided into lobules -lobule structures --hepatocytes (liver cells) --branches from hepatic artery (O2 input) --branches from hepatic portal vein (nutrient input) --liver sinusoids --central vein (output leading to hepatic vein) --bile canaliculi --> bile ductules --> bile ducts
81
Sucrase source location of action substrates products extra notes
small intestine small intestine digests sucrose glucose, fructose brush border enzyme
82
Maltose source location of action substrates products extra notes
small intestine small intestine digests maltose glucose, glucose brush border enzyme
83
Lactase source location of action substrates products extra notes
small intestine small intestine digests lactose glucose, galactose brush border enzyme
84
Peptidases source location of action substrates products extra notes
small intestine small intestine peptides amino acids brush border enzyme
85
Intestinal Lipase source location of action substrates products extra notes
small intestine small intestine triglycerides fatty acid and monoglyceride brush border enzyme
86
Digestive/Metabolic Functions of Liver (5)
-synthesizing plasma proteins/clotting factors -phagocytizing damaged red blood cells -storing cells -inactivating toxins -storing iron, fat-soluble vitamins, glycogen, lipids
87
Primary Liver Digestive Functions BGL
-Maintenance of blood glucose level (controlled by insulin and glucagon) ---glycogenesis (glucose to glycogen) ---glycogenolysis (glycogen to glucose) ---gluconeogenesis (make glucose from lipids/amino acids)
88
Primary Liver Digestive Functions Protein
-Protein metabolism ---deamination of amino acids and production of urea ---amino acid conversion (nonessential) ---plasma protein synthesis
89
Primary Liver Digestive Functions Lipid
-Lipid metabolism ---synthesis of phospholipids and cholesterol ---conversion of carbs and proteins into triglycerides for energy storage ---fatty acids used for energy
90
Primary Liver Digestive Functions Bile
-Bile secretion ---functions as emulsifier ---forms micelles ---lipase works to digest lipids
91
Gallbladder function associated ducts others
-stores and concentrates bile from liver -associated ducts: ---cystic: attached to gallbladder ---hepatic: come from liver lobes ---common hepatic: hepatic ducts merge ---common bile: cystic and common hepatic ducts meet ---hepatopancretic ampulla/sphincter: near wall of small intestine -fills with bile backflow -gallstones form when cholesterol precipitates -bile release stimulated by CCK
92
Pancreas functions
Digestive system (exocrine) function = secretion of pancreatic juice into small intestine Endocrine system function = secretion of insulin and glucagon into blood
93
Pancreas duct work
pancreatic duct -> hepatopancreatic ampulla/sphincter -> lumen of duodenum
94
Pancreatic juice components
-pancreatic amylase -pancreatic lipase -nucleases (2) -proteolytic enzymes --trypsin --chymotrypsin --carboxypeptidase -bicarbonate iones (neutralize pH of chyme and inactive pepsin)
95
Hormonal Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion secretions
Acidic chyme in the duodenum causes the duodenum to secrete... -cholesystokinin = stimulates pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes -secretin = stimulates pancreas to secrete bicarbonate ions
96
Intestinal lipase source location of action substrates products notes
small intestine small intestine triglycerides fatty acid and monoglyceride brush border enzyme
97
Pancreatic amylase source location of action substrates products
pancreas small intestine starch, glycogen maltose
98
Nucleases source location of action substrates products
pancreas small intestine nucleic acids nucleotides
99
Trypsin source location of action substrates products notes
pancreas small intestine proteins peptides secreted as trypsinogen, activated by enteropeptidase
100
Chymotrypsin source location of action substrates products notes
pancreas small intestine proteins peptides secreted as chymotripsinogen, activated by trypsin
101
Carboxypeptidase source location of action substrates products notes
pancreas small intestine peptides amino acids secreted as procarboxypeptidase, activated by trypsin

Anatomy & Physiology II (13 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions