Unit Four Flashcards
learning
the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, the first stimulus leads to a response in anticipation of the second stimulus
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who described classical conditioning after his landmark study with dogs in which he trained them to drool at the sound of a bell by pairing the bell with food
behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
John B. Watson
American psychologist who founded behaviorism and conditioned an infant (“Little Albert”) to fear small animals by pairing an animal with a loud noise
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response
unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (such as salivation to food in the mouth)
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of a previously extinguished conditioned response
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occurs in other, similar situations.)
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)
Edward L. Thorndike
psychologist who developed the law of effect, which states behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and punished behavior is not
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
B.F. Skinner
American psychologist who studied operant conditioning primarily using rats and pigeons
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli, such as nagging
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need like food
conditioned reinforcer
a “secondary” stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer, such as money
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior only after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior at unpredictable time intervals
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
positive punishment
decreasing behaviors by administering aversive stimuli, such as scolding
negative punishment
decreasing behaviors by withdrawing rewarding stimuli, such as taking away privileges
instinctive drift
the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
overjustification effect
the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate
internal locus of control
the perception that we control our own fate
self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
observational learning
learning by observing others (also called social learning)
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Albert Bandura
American psychologist who discovered in his “Bobo doll” studies that children will model aggressive behavior of adults
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
