Semester One Final Flashcards
Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Wilhelm Wundt
a German who established the first psychological laboratory in 1879
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
Introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes
Functionalism
an early school of psychology countering structuralism that focused on how our minds and behaviors enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish
Evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
Behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
Sigmund Freud
a famous personality theorist whose work focused on the unconscious mind; he founded psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud’s school of psychology that emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior
Cognitive psychology
the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning
Hypothesis
a testable prediction that allow scientists to evaluate a theory
Case study
a research method in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Survey
a technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a random sample of the group
Population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Positive Correlation
as one variable increases or decreases, so does the other in the same direction (e.g. practice and performance)
Negative correlation
as one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g. stress and health)
Correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
Experimentation
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. By random assignment of participants, the investigator aims to control other factors.
Independent variable
in an experiment, the variable whose effect is being studied. It is what is controlled by the experimenter.
Dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change in response to the independent variable
Operational definitions
a statement of the exact procedures (or operations) used in a research study
Control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the independent variable that serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the independent variable
Random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
Double-blind study
an experimental procedure in which both the research staff and participants are unsure whether the participants have received the treatment or a placebo
Placebo effect
any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal distribution (normal curve)
Central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord make up this division of the nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body make up this division of the nervous system
Somatic NS
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
Autonomic NS
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of internal organs (like the heart)
Sympathetic NS
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
Parasympathetic NS
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Neurons
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Axon
the extension of a neuron that passes messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Dendrites
a neuron’s branching extensions that receive messages from other cells and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center
Synapse
the meeting point between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this site is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
Myelin sheath
a fatty tissue that covers the axons of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
Sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Acetylcholine
a neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory. With Alzheimer’s disease, neurons that produce this deteriorate.
Endorphins
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning and attention. An undersupply of this is linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s disease.
Serotonin
a neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. An undersupply of this is linked to depression.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a technique to show brain anatomy that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produces computer-generated images of soft tissue
Positron emission tomography (PET)
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
CT (computed tomography) scan
a brain scan that examines the brain by taking X-ray photographs from different angles
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
these scans show brain function and structure by revealing bloodflow and comparing successive MRI scans
Cerebral cortex
Frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex involved in speaking, muscle movements, making plans and judgement. These lobes lie just behind the forehead.
Broca’s area
an area of the frontal lobe that controls language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech
Occipital lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that receives information from the visual fields. These lobes are located at the back of the head.
Parietal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory input for touch and body position. These lobes lie at the top of the head and toward the rear.
Temporal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that includes auditory areas that receive information from the ears. These lobes are roughly above the ears.
Wernicke’s area
an area of the temporal lobe involved in language reception and comprehension
Motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Somatosensory cortex
an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Medulla
the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing
Pons
lying above the medulla, this part of the brainstem helps to coordinate movements and control sleep
Reticular formation
a nerve network that plays an important role in controlling arousal. This network travels through the brainstem into the thalamus.
Hypothalamus
a neural structure that directs eating, drinking, and body temperature, helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward. It is located below the thalamus.
Thalamus
the brain’s sensory control center. It directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Cerebellum
this brain structure coordinates movement output and balance and enables nonverbal learning and memory. It is located at the rear of the brainstem.
Limbic system
a neural system associated with emotions and drives that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus. This system is located below the cerebral hemispheres.
Amygdala
two neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion, specifically aggression and fear
Hippocampus
a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories of facts and events for storage
Corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Michael Gazzaniga (split-brain research)
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them
Endocrine system
Hormones
Pituitary gland
Nature versus nurture
the controversy over the relative contributions that genes (nature) and experiences (nurture) make to the development of traits and behaviors
Genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
Chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA
Natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better allow an organism to survive and reproduce will most likely be “selected” and passed on to succeeding generations
Heritability
the extent to which differences among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes. This statistic takes a value between 0 and 1.
Identical twins
monozygotic twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, resulting in two genetically identical organisms
Fraternal twins
dizygotic twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs who are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters
Consciousness
Circadian rhythm
our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (for example, temperature and wakefulness)
Stage 1 sleep
the lightest sleep stage marked by slowed breathing and irregular brain waves, in which hypnagogic sensations may occur
Stage 2 sleep
the “average” sleep stage characterized by its periodic sleep spindles (bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity)
Stage 3 sleep
the deepest sleep stage in which your brain emits large, slow delta waves, and you are hard to awaken
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. The muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active in this stage.
Activation synthesis hypothesis (dream theory)
theory on dreams that suggests the neural activity triggered by REM sleep evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories
Sigmund Freud’s wish-fulfillment (dream theory)
Sigmund Freud’s theory on dreams that suggests dreams allow the dreamer to express otherwise unacceptable feelings
Manifest content (Freud)
according to Sigmund Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
Latent content (Freud)
according to Sigmund Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
Insomnia
a sleep disorder characterized by recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
Sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing (in which breathing stops) during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
Psychoactive drugs
chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods
Depressants
drugs (such as alcohol) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
Hallucinogens
psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
Drug tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
Withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug or behavior
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Transduction
in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights and sounds, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
Absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Signal detection theory
a theory that assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
Difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection; sometimes called the just noticeable difference (j.n.d.)
Weber’s law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount)
Sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (e.g. getting used to the temperature of a pool)
Cornea
the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris
Pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
Cones
retinal receptor cells that detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster
Lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Accommodation
the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Trichromatic theory (color vision)
the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors (one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue) which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color
Opponent process theory (color vision)
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) enable color vision; this theory explains negative afterimages
Afterimages
Color blindness
Eardrum
a tight membrane located at the end of the ear canal that vibrates when struck by sound waves
Cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
Pitch
a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
Place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
Frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Taste buds
Olfaction
the sense of smell
Gate control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
Vestibular sense
our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance
Semicircular canals
three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance
Bottom up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
Top down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Gestalt psychology
an early perspective in psychology that focused particularly on the perception of integrating pieces into meaningful wholes
Binocular cues (depth perception)
a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes
Retinal disparity
by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance; the greater the disparity (difference) between the two, the closer the object
Monocular cues (depth perception)
a depth cue, such as interposition, available to either eye alone
Linear perspective
a depth cue stating parallel lines appear to meet in the distance; the sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance
Interposition
a depth cue stating if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
Perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
Classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, the first stimulus leads to a response in anticipation of the second stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response
Unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (such as salivation to food in the mouth)
Conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned response
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who described classical conditioning after his landmark study with dogs in which he trained them to drool at the sound of a bell by pairing the bell with food
John B. Watson
American psychologist who founded behaviorism and conditioned an infant (“Little Albert”) to fear small animals by pairing an animal with a loud noise
Stimulus generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occurs in other, similar situations.)
Stimulus discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)
Spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of a previously extinguished conditioned response
Extinction (classical conditioning)
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and punished behavior is not
Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food
Negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli, such as nagging
B. F. Skinner
American psychologist who studied operant conditioning primarily using rats and pigeons
Primary reinforcers
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need like food
Secondary reinforcers
a “secondary” stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer, such as money
Continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs
Partial reinforcement
Fixed ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior only after a specified number of responses
Variable ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses
Fixed interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior only after a specified time has elapsed
Variable interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior at unpredictable time intervals
Punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
Extinction (operant conditioning)
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
Intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Overjustification effect
the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
Observational learning (social learning)
learning by observing others (also called social learning)
Albert Bandura
American psychologist who discovered in his “Bobo doll” studies that children will model aggressive behavior of adults
Mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
Insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution
Cognition
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Long term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. This is believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system
Storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious active processing of incoming information and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Explicit memory (also known as declarative memory)
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory)
Semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
Episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events
Flashbulb memories
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Implicit memory (also known as nondeclarative memory)
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
Procedural memory
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Primacy effect
our tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well after a delay
Recency effect
our tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
Rehearsal
Mnemonic devices
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
Storage decay
Proactive interference
the disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
Amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
Retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
Elizabeth Loftus
Patient H.M.
