AP Psychology big exam Flashcards
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
functionalism
an early school of psychology countering structuralism that focused on how our minds and behaviors enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish
behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
Wilhelm Wundt
a German who established the first psychological laboratory in 1879
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
Evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
Gestalt psychology
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
William James
an American psychologist who founded functionalism
Introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes
Natural selection
Charles Darwin’s principle that traits contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning
Mary Whiton Calkins
the first woman president of the APA (American Psychological Association)
Case study
a research method in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
positive correlation
as one variable increases or decreases, so does the other in the same direction (e.g. practice and performance)
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
independent variable
in an experiment, the variable whose effect is being studied. It is what is controlled by the experimenter.
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
negative correlation
as one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g. stress and health)
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the independent variable
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change in response to the independent variable
survey
a technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a random sample of the group
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the independent variable that serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
placebo effect
a “fake” pill that has no therapeutic effect, used as a control in testing new drugs
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
operational definition
a statement of the exact procedures (or operations) used in a research study
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
replication
repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
normal distribution
a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population.
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
signal detection theory
a theory that assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection; sometimes called the just noticeable difference (j.n.d.)
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Weber’s law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount)
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (e.g. getting used to the temperature of a pool)
accommodation
the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
transduction
in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights and sounds, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
retinal disparity
by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance; the greater the disparity (difference) between the two, the closer the object
vestibular sense
our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
gate control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
cones
retinal receptor cells that detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
trichromatic theory
the theory that the firing of red, green, and blue cones cause color vision. Also known as the Young-Helmholtz theory.
olfaction
the sense of smell
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
Neurons
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Myelin sheath
a fatty tissue that covers the axons of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
endorphins
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
axon
the extension of a neuron that passes messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands
synapse
the meeting point between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this site is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
acetylcholine (Ach)
a neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory. With Alzheimer’s disease, neurons that produce this deteriorate.
Hormones
chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that are carried by the bloodstream to other body tissues
Dendrites
a neuron’s branching extensions that receive messages from other cells and conduct impulses toward the cell body
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
pituitary gland
the endocrine system’s most influential gland that regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. This gland is influenced by the brain’s hypothalamus.
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord make up this division of the nervous system
autonomic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of internal organs (like the heart)
medulla
the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing
limbic system
a neural system associated with emotions and drives that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus. This system is located below the cerebral hemispheres.
peripheral nervous system
all of the neurons that are not in the central nervous system. Carries information to and from the central nervous system.
sympathetic nervous system
a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that activates nerves, glands and muscles in times of stress or threat, preparing the body for action
cerebellum
this brain structure coordinates movement output and balance and enables nonverbal learning and memory. It is located at the rear of the brainstem.
hypothalamus
a neural structure that directs eating, drinking, and body temperature, helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward. It is located below the thalamus.
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles and voluntary movements
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
thalamus
the brain’s sensory control center. It directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
amygdala
two neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion, specifically aggression and fear
hippocampus
a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories of facts and events for storage
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
parietal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory input for touch and body position. These lobes lie at the top of the head and toward the rear.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a technique to show brain anatomy that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Broca’s area
an area of the frontal lobe that controls language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech
temporal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that includes auditory areas that receive information from the ears. These lobes are roughly above the ears.
Functional MRI (fMRI)
these scans show brain function and structure by revealing bloodflow and comparing successive MRI scans
Frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex involved in speaking, muscle movements, making plans and judgement. These lobes lie just behind the forehead.
occipital lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that receives information from the visual fields. These lobes are located at the back of the head.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
Positron emission tomography (PET)
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
Behavioral genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. The muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active in this stage.
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing (in which breathing stops) during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, the first stimulus leads to a response in anticipation of the second stimulus
heritability
the extent to which differences among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes. This statistic takes a value between 0 and 1.
insomnia
a sleep disorder characterized by recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response
circadian rhythm
our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (for example, temperature and wakefulness)
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
unconditioned response (UCR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (such as salivation to food in the mouth)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
stimulus discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
schedules of reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
stimulus generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occurs in other, similar situations.)
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of a previously extinguished conditioned response
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
observational learning
learning by observing others (also called social learning)
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory)
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious active processing of incoming information and of information retrieved from long-term memory
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events
procedural memory
a type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
long term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. This is believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
Mnemonic devices
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
Henry Molaison (Patient H.M.)
a famous patient in the history of neuroscience who, because of damage to medial temporal lobe structures, was unable to encode new, explicit memories of facts and experiences
Elizabeth Loftus
psychologist involved with analyzing vivid memories triggered by brain stimulation (found that seeming flashbacks appeared to be invented, not relived)
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
Algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
Availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes, which may lead us to ignore other relevant information
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial beliefs after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing effect
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgements
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which tends to increase with age
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, which tends to decrease during late adulthood
“g” factor
intelligence that underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
triarchic theory of intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s theory of intelligence that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative, and practical dimensions
creative intelligence
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
Divergent thinking
creative thinking that provides a number of different answers
convergent thinking
thinking that provides a single correct answer
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that indentifies clusters of related test items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score
Analytical intelligence
(academic-problem-solving)
traditional intelligence traits
practical intelligence
required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist
Gardner’s multiple intelligences
visual/spatial
verbal/linguistic
musical/rhythmic
logical/mathematical
bodily/kinesthetic
interpersonal
interpersonal
natural
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. (On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.)
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Alfred Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age
Alfred Binet
French psychologist best remembered for developing the first widely used intelligence test
Standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
David Wechsler
creator of the most widely used intelligence test, WAIS, his test contains both verbal and performance (nonverbal) tests
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the most widely used intelligence test containing verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time
cross sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
teratogens
substances that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
fetal alcohol syndrome
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking
cognitive development
The process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes due to their age and experience.
Jean Piaget
a developmental psychologist who studied cognition; his studies led him to believe that a child’s mind develops through a series of 4 stages
schemas
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
sensorimotor stage
in Piaget’s theory, the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not seen
preoperational stage
in Piaget’s theory, the stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
egocentrism
in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view
concrete operational stage
in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
conservation
the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
formal operational stage
in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
authoritarian parenting
a parenting style characterized by strict rules and expected obedience
authoritative parenting
a parenting style characterized by demands, but warmth; these parents encourage open discuss and allow exceptions
permissive parenting
a parenting style characterized by few demands and little punishment
levels of moral reasoning
Erik Erikson
a developmental psychologist who contended each stage of life has its own psychosocial task, a crisis that needs resolution
trust vs. mistrust
Erikson’s stage in infancy in which infants develop a sense of basic trust if needs are dependably met
identity vs. role confusion
Erikson’s stage in adolescence in which teenagers work at refining a sense of self, or they become confused about who they are
integrity vs. despair
Erikson’s stage in late adulthood in which adults, reflecting on their lives, may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
Alzheimer’s disease
a neurocognitive disorder, often with onset after age 80, entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
instincts
an innate behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned (i.e. imprinting, rooting)
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive, like hunger) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
incentives
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs (love, esteem, and self-actualization) become active
self-actualization
according to Abraham Maslow, the need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli: stimulus -> arousal -> emotion
Cannon-Bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion
Two-factor theory
Schachter and Singer’s theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
Type A personality
a behavior pattern marked by a sense of time urgency, impatience, excessive competitiveness, hostility, and anger
type B personality
a behavior pattern marked by a relaxed, easygoing approach to life, without the urgency, impatience, and hostility of the Type A pattern
big five personality factors
five basic personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) from which other traits are derived
projective tests
a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots that seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
Sigmund Freud
the founder of psychoanalysis, which is a controversial theory about the workings of the unconscious mind
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality that attributes childhood experiences and unconscious motivations to personality development
Id
according to Freud, the structure of the personality that is a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic drives
Ego
according to Freud, the largely conscious “executive” part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality
Superego
according to Freud, the part of personality that provides a sense of morality (a conscience)
Defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
repression
the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
reaction formation
a defense mechanism by which the ego switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites
projection
a defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
displacement
a defense mechanism that shifts impulses toward a less threatening object or person
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
spotlight effect
overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders
Dunning-Kruger effect
the tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability
DSM-5
the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders used for classifying psychological disorders
Generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by pervasive anxiety not connected to any one, specific stimulus
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks
agoraphobia
fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic
obsessive-compulsive disorder
a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both
major depressive disorder
a disorder characterized by two weeks or more of low mood or loss of interest or pleasure, among other symptoms
bipolar disorder
a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
mania
a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgement is common, characteristic of bipolar disorder
schizophrenia
a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
delusions
a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
dissociative identity disorder
a disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities, formerly called multiple personality disorder
antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder
antidepressant drugs
drugs used to treat depression, anxiety, OCD, and PTSD. Several widely used ones are SSRIs - selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
electroconvulsive therapy
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological, rather than biological, techniques, such as psychoanalysis or exposure therapy
cognitive-behavioral therapy
therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
Rational-emotive behavioral therapy
a confrontational cognitive therapy that vigorously challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions
systematic desensitization
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange tokens for privileges or treats
Dorothea Dix
an American advocate that led the way to humane treatment for those with psychological disorders
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
Solomon Asch
social psychologist who conducted studies on conformity in which participants’ estimates of line lengths were influenced by the presence of others giving incorrect answers
obedience
compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
Stanley Milgram
social psychologist who conducted studies on obedience in which participants were told by an authority figure to electrically shock another individual
Group polarization
the enhancement of a group’s prevailing opinions or feelings through discussion within the group
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic thinking in individuals
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
social norms
understood rules for accepted and expected behavior
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
cognitive dissonance
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
central route persuasion
attitude change that occurs when people focus on the content of the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
peripheral route persuasion
attitude change that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness
foot-in-the-door technique
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
Stanford prison experiment
Philip Zimbardo’s study that demonstrated the powerful impact of roles, perceived power, and toxic situations on attitudes and behaviors
Philip Zimbardo
social psychologist who conducted the famous Stanford Prison Experiment
Prejudice
an unjustifiable attitude toward a group of people and its members
Stereotypes
a generalized belief about a group of people
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
frustration aggression hypothesis
the principle that frustration (the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger, which can generate aggression
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
bystander effect
the tendency for any given person to be less likely to give aid to someone in need of help if other people are present
