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Psychology of Gender > Unit 6: Sexuality and Sexual Orientation > Flashcards

Unit 6: Sexuality and Sexual Orientation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is SEXUAL ORIENTATION?

A

an enduring pattern of cognitive, motivational, and behavioural tendencies that regulates the experience and expression of sexuality

not only describes the sexes of the persons toward whom individuals direct their romantic and sexual feelings, but also the self-labels they adopt and the sexual behaviour they enact

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2
Q

What is SEXUALITY?

A

the capacity for sexual responses and experiences

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3
Q

What is the historical and cultural context of sexual orientation?

A

the idea that people had a stable, internal drive that oriented them toward a particular sex is relatively recent; first references to sexual orientation in the 1860s&raquo_space; “homosexuality” first used in an English-language text in 1892, widely used by the 1930s

prior to this time, assumptions about people’s sexuality was based on sexual acts or roles (receptive or penetrative)

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4
Q

Why did thinking on sexual orientation change in the 19th century?

A

Western medical and scientific fields developed the idea of sexual orientation as a means of controlling people’s erotic behaviour&raquo_space; scientific credibility was given to the notion that some of kind of attractions were natural and normal, while others were deviant

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5
Q

What are the 5 dimensions of sexual orientation?

A

Sexual attraction
Sexual behaviour
Personal identity
Romantic relationships
Community membership

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6
Q

What is SEXUAL IDENTITY?

A

the label that people use to describe their sexual orientation and their emotional reactions toward the label

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7
Q

How do evolutionary theorists describe desire (lust) and love (attachment)?

A

as distinct but overlapping systems that regulate reproduction and mating

typically are directed at the same partner or person, but doesn’t have to be

can be directed toward persons of the same or another sex; a person may feel sexual desire primarily toward persons of the other sex, while mostly falling in love with people of the same sex

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8
Q

What is SEXUAL DESIRE?

A

a yearning to engage in sexual activities

physiological arousal is regulated by the gonadal hormones and neurotransmitters

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9
Q

What are the two types of LOVE?

A

Passionate Love: early stages, consists of arousal, urgent longing, exhilaration, obsessive thinking about the love object

Companionate Love: later states, consists of calm, warm, and emotionally close feelings of intimacy toward a familiar other

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10
Q

Why is love considered adaptive?

A

it encourages individuals to focus their mating efforts on a specific, preferred love object for the purpose of raising offspring

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11
Q

What is the PAIR BONDING SYSTEM?

A

a system in which two adult members of a species remain bonded to one another for the purpose of producing and raising offspring; motivates adults to remain together as biparental units

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12
Q

What is SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR?

A

anything that can be considered an erotic act, including behaviour performed alone, with others, and with people who are not physically present (cyber sex, sexting)

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13
Q

How fixed are sexual orientations, generally?

A

multiple analyses find evidence for fluidity over stability of sexual identity; small numbers of people report inconsistencies in their sexual orientation label, desire, and behaviour > stable over time

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14
Q

What are PHASE MODELS of sexual orientation?

A

models that posit distinct phases of emotional, psychological, social and behavioural experiences that mark transitions in self knowledge as people develop a sexual identity

phases do not occur in the same order for all people, nor does everyone experience all the phases

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15
Q

What are the typical phases for a sexual minority individual?

A

Awareness
Exploration
Identity Uncertainty
Deepening and Commitment
Integration and Synthesis

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16
Q

Describe the AWARENESS phase.

A

during which an individual recognizes a sense of differentness from others and first realizes that people can differ in sexual orientation

possible confusion, fear, bewilderment

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17
Q

Describe the EXPLORATION phase.

A

some sexual minority individuals explore same-sex attractions and erotic feelings, learn about other people and communities with the same features, continue to acquire more complex self-knowledge

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18
Q

Describe the UNEXPLORED COMMITMENT phase for heterosexual individiuals.

A

because heteronormative culture never inspires feelings of difference, heterosexual people may experience a phase characterized by a lack of conscious thought about whether to adopt a heterosexual identity, and unquestioning acceptance of the privileges therein

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19
Q

Describe the IDENTITY UNCERTAINTY phase.

A

during which the exploration phase does not produce clear and awareness and self-knowledge

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20
Q

Describe the DEEPENING AND COMMITMENT phase

A

information and experiences acquired through exploration lead to an increasing commitment to one’s sexual identity, greater self-knowledge, and active choices about how to relate to others sexually

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21
Q

How might the deepening and commitment phase look different for sexual minority people vs. heterosexual people?

A

Sexual Minority: this often means further involvement in the LGBTQ+ community

Heterosexual: might involve a refinement of conscious attitudes and moral values regarding heterosexual privilege and societal treatment of sexual minority people

22
Q

Describe the INTEGRATION AND SYNTHESIS phase

A

sexual identify becomes fully integrated into an overall sense of self

sexual identity is experiences as coherent, volitional, integrated with other valued identities

23
Q

How does the phase model potentially differ for asexual people?

A

may recall a distinct DISCOVERY OF TERMINOLOGY: during which they first encounter the language to describe their experiences

Identity Acceptance and Salience Negotiation: may acknowledge and accept their legitimate orientation and assess the centrality of asexuality to their sense of self

24
Q

What is an important thing to note regarding the phase model of sexual orientation development?

A

research on these models has mostly been conducted with relatively non-diverse groups

cultural and religious identity may play a larger role in shaping sexual orientation development in other countries, such as those in the Middle East

25
Q

What is the nature of the MILESTONE MODELS of sexual minority identity development?

A

in this context, milestone = models that identify the timing, sequence, and tone of different milestones that many sexual minority individuals experience

26
Q

What are some of the major milestones experienced by sexual minority individuals?

A

awareness of same-sex attraction
labeling the self as a sexual-minority individuals
first same-sex sexual contact
first disclosure of identity to others

27
Q

How do the sexes differ in their experience of sexual minority identity development?

A

Girls: generally become aware at a slightly older age, more frequently experience first same-sex attraction in emotional terms, have their first same-sex contact in the context of a dating relationship

Boys: experience same-sex attraction as primarily sexual, first contact is often with a friend or stranger

these differences may exist due to gender socialization norms that encourage girls to prioritize emotional components of sex and confine sexual activity to relationships

28
Q

What is the NARRATIVE MODEL of sexual orientation development?

A

an approach that broadly considers how multiple sources of identity (race, culture, nationality) and pride interact to shape sexual identity development within specific contexts

29
Q

What are the relevant life experiences that contribute to one’s sexual orientation development?

A

socializing structures
individual decisions and actions

these classes of experiences jointly influence each other in a non-linear, flexible manner, shaped strongly by national and racial background

30
Q

Describe SOCIAL SITUATIONS in the context of the narrative model.

A

social contexts, institutions that either empower or disempower (friends, family, workplace, community, religion)

sexual minority individuals often report experiencing contradictory forces > invisibility and support, hostility and celebration

31
Q

Describe INDIVIDUAL DECISIONS AND ACTIONS in the context of the narrative model.

A

private experiences like discovering one’s sexuality, labeling the self and disclosing to others, acquiring and sharing knowledge, becoming an activist, finding inspiration

32
Q

Describe the BIOLOGICAL THEORY of why people differ in sexual orientation.

A

sexual orientation is moderately heritable, somewhat moreso among men
~ 32% of variance in tendency toward same-sex sexual activity is due to genes&raquo_space; many different genes spread out across the genome, may play a small role

32
Q

Describe the NEUROHORMONAL APPROACH to sexual orientation differentiation.

A

fetal exposure to hormones, especially testosterone and estradiol, plays an important role in the development of sexual orientation
proposes that fetuses of any sex exposed to female-typical hormone levels will display a preference for male sexual partners, and vice versa

33
Q

What is the FRATERNAL BIRTH ORDER EFFECT?

A

a well-established positive correlation bw the number of older brothers a man has and his likelihood of identifying as gay

fetal exposure to maternal antibodies? after carrying a certain number of male fetuses, the mother’s body produces enough antibodies which attack certain Y-linked proteins to prevent the male brain from developing in the male-typical fashion, increasing the likelihood of same-sex sexuality

^^ speculative hypothesis

34
Q

What is the ALLIANCE FORMATION HYPOTHESIS?

A

Through the evolutionary lens: same-sex sexual activity is adaptive because it promotes emotional bonds and facilitates survival and resource sharing bw pairs of friends > reciprocal altruism

if behaviour increases survival rates, it will be transmitted genetically

^^ speculative hypothesis

35
Q

What is KIN SELECTION theory?

A

helping behaviour that is costly to the helper in the short term but beneficial in the long term bc it increases the survival likelihood of the helper’s genetic relations

male same-sex sexuality persists in the gene pool bc the benefits that are bestowed on the genetic relatives offset the cost of same-sex individuals not reproducing

36
Q

What is the FECUNDITY HYPOTHESIS?

A

genes for same-sex sexuality get passed on genetically bc the female relatives of gay men produce more than the typical number of offspring

biological mothers and aunts of gay men tend to have more children
men share many genes with their mothers and aunts; these women’s heightened fecundity keep the genes for same-sex attraction in the population

37
Q

What is the TIPPING POINT THEORY?

A

genes for same-sex sexuality get passed on bc the same sex relatives of gay and lesbian people have personalities that increase their likelihood of engaging in reproductive sex

some men inherit genes for communal traits but remain heterosexual, become very desirable partners to women

having more agentic traits in childhood predicts both same-sex attraction and larger numbers of sexual partners in women&raquo_space; genes that code for lesbian orientation may also code for agentic personalities and a tendency to pursue more partners&raquo_space; if heterosexual women share these genes and have more reproductive sex with men, the genes that code for same-sex attraction in women will remain in the same pool

38
Q

Describe the BIOBEHAVIOURAL MODEL

A

proposes that prolonged sex segregation combined with proximity, intimacy, and touch can lead people to develop novel sexual desires, facilitated by oxytocin

same-sex love can turn into same-sex desire through an interaction of behavioural and environmental factors

39
Q

How are theories around sexual orientation development changing?

A

researchers do not fully understand the rule that biological and environmental factors shape development, though they know they are both involved

many theories focus primarily on explaining same-sex sexuality only
many theories focus on explaining male sexual attraction more than female

40
Q

What are some myths about gender and sexuality that have been found to be false?

A

the stereotype that men are “unselective” when choosing sexual partners&raquo_space; men may exhibit greater sexual interest than women bc of their socialized role as “the suitor”

the stereotype that men are more sexually assertive than women&raquo_space; observed sex differences here may result less from evolved tendencies and more from socially constructed differences in power

41
Q

What are some general attitudes we see from men and women regarding sexual behaviour?

A

men report more overall sexual experience and more permissive attitudes, but effect sizes are small

women reported greater frequency of same-sex sexual experiences, more favourable attitudes about sex with emotional commitment, and support for sexual minority rights

overall, the sexes are more similar than different in sexual behaviour and attitudes, and the similarity increases over time

42
Q

What is the ORGASM GAP?

A

women orgasm less frequently than men in the context of heterosexual activity

genes explain about 31% of the population variance; maybe bc genes affect the distance bw the clitoris and the vaginal opening?

heterosexual women report the lowest rate of orgasm by a significant margin; women may also be reluctant to ask for what is needed

43
Q

What is SEXUAL FLUIDITY?

A

the tendency for people’s sexual orientation or sexual identity to change across time

women demonstrate more fluidity than men, show greater sexual response to both male and female sexual stimuli regardless of orientation

women also endorse the general idea that sexual orientation is fluid rather than fixed more often than men do

44
Q

How do men’s and women’s overall pattern of sexual desire differ?

A

Men: driven by sexual proceptivity: hormonally driven, internal motivation to initiate

Women: driven by arousability: shaped by external sexual stimuli and learning/conditioning

45
Q

What is the SEXUAL PEAK?

A

the height of a person’s interest in, enjoyment of, or engagement in sexual activity over time

women and men both show similar gradual increases in sexual activity from puberty to midlife, a plateau between ages 45-55, and gradual declines over the next several decades

men report highest levels of lust slightly earlier than women do (late 20s vs. early-mid 30s)

46
Q

What is MENOPAUSE?

A

the cessation of menstruation and fertility, accompanied by steady declines in estrogen, around ages 45-55 typically
fertility, estrogen, and desire decline; periods and ovulation are irregular

47
Q

What is ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION?

A

around the age of 50, men tend to lose erectile function and report difficulty maintaining or achieving an erection

this is a normal/natural physiological process but the term “dysfunction” portrays this as a medical illness

48
Q

What is MEDICALIAZATION?

A

the process whereby normal, natural physical conditions and transition are viewed as medical illnesses that require diagnoses and treatments

EX: hormone replacement therapies for menopausal women increase risk of heart disease and breast cancer

49
Q

What are the negative effects of medicalization?

A

increases people’s reliance on unnecessary and sometimes ill-advised treatments

makes people feel there is something wrong with them

casts healthy people into the role of medical patient

focuses attention on biological factors that underlie sexuality and ignores social, emotional, and cultural factors

50
Q

Describe the medicalization example of women receiving testosterone-only menopause treatment.

A

according to a recent study, the effectiveness of testosterone-only supplements in sexual desire loss is minimal bc the mode of action of testosterone on sexual desire is through increasing estrodiol levels

an effective therapy would require the pairing of testosterone with estrodiol, or estriodiol-only treatments HOWEVER this therapy is shown to increase women’s risk for heart disease and breast cancer

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