Unit 5 cont'd: Aggression

Question 1

What is AGGRESSION?

Answer 1

behaviour intended to cause psychological or physical harm to a person or nonhuman animal

Question 2

What is PHYSICAL AGGRESSION?

Answer 2

physical acts intended to injure or harm others

Question 3

What is VERBAL AGGRESSION?

Answer 3

communications intended to harm others

Question 4

What is DIRECT AGGRESSION?

Answer 4

overt verbal or physical behaviour aimed directly at another person, with the intent of harm

Question 5

What is INDIRECT (RELATIONAL) AGGRESSION?

Answer 5

behaviour intended to harm another person’s social relationships or status, often performed when the target is not physically present

Question 6

What is BULLYING?

Answer 6

aggression (direct or indirect) that is repeated over time and in which the perpetrator holds more power than the victim

Question 7

What is VIOLENCE?

Answer 7

severe forms of physical aggression that have extreme harm as their goal

Question 8

What are the statistics of violent crime as related to sex?

Answer 8

in the US, men account for 79% of all violent crime arrests, 88% of manslaughter and murder arrests
^^ this pattern holds across the globe

women account for 21% of violent crime arrests in the US, a minority of incarcerated women are in prison for a violent crime

Question 9

What is YOUNG MALE SYNDROME?

Answer 9

a consistent pattern across cultures and time periods: men are much. more likely to kill (and be killed) in their late teens and early 20s than at any other time in their lives

Question 10

What sex differences emerge in the domain of physical aggression?

Answer 10

boys and men are more physically aggressive than girls and women in both lab settings and real-world, carries across cultures < these difference emerge in early life

effect size for differences favouring male are declining over time

Question 11

What types of factors appear to influence sex differences in aggressive behaviours?

Answer 11

differences tend to be larger in studies with younger compared to older participants, and in studies done in the real-world vs lab settings&raquo_space; in lab settings, differences also tend to be bigger when aggression is unprovoked

when men’s identities were highlighted during video game play, they dropped more bombs &laquo_space;people may modify their physical aggression to conform with gender norms

Question 12

In which domains do we see small or close-to-zero effect sizes for sex differencess?

Answer 12

verbal aggression > no sex differences in tendencies to express anger

relational aggression > when small differences do appear (favouring women), they often occur in samples of older youth and through methods other than self-report

Question 13

What sex differences do we observe in the domains of bullying/cyberbullying?

Answer 13

boys tend to bully their peers more than girls > 2x more likely to bully in 35+ countries

younger girls engaged in more cyberbullying in boys; older boys (11+) cyberbullied more

Question 14

What sex differences do we observe in the domain of experiencing aggression?

Answer 14

boys are cross-culturally. more likely than girls to report being bullied
men are more likely than women to be the victims of homicide, aggravated assault, and armed robbery
women are more likely to experience rape and sexual assault
men and women tend to experience roughly equal rates of intimate partner violence

Question 15

What is the big picture regarding sex differences in aggression?

Answer 15

the nature of sex differences in aggression depends on the type being measured, the age of the sample, and the setting in which the aggression takes place

boys and men generally exhibit more physical aggression and extreme violence

when women and girls use aggression, they tend to use less physical forms

many forms of aggression target boys and men more, especially if they are young and low-income

Question 16

What is SEX-BASED HARASSMENT?

Answer 16

behaviour that derogates or humiliates an individual based on the individual’s sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity

unwanted touching, sexual gestures, catcalls, comments or jokes, bullying and insults

Question 17

Why is “sex-based harassment” the preferred term over “sexual harassment”?

Answer 17

sex-based harassment does not always involve sexual comments or behaviour, and this label is recommended to avoid confusion

Question 18

What are the 2 types of sex-based harassment acknowledged in the US legal system?

Answer 18

Quid pro quo harassment: when a person with power offers advantages in exchange for sexual contact

Hostile environment: negative speech or behaviour that creates an intimidating or offensive environment, often occurring bw individuals of equal status

Question 19

What 3 different types of behaviour do psychologists typically divide sex-based harassment into?

Answer 19

1) gender harassment > making sexual or sexist remarks or gestures > hostile environment

2) unwanted sexual attention > initiating unwanted sexual discussions or touching > hostile environment

3) sexual coercion > compelling sexual contact through job threats or rewards > aligns with quid pro quo harassment

Question 20

What is POWER DISTANCE?

Answer 20

the extent to which a culture has and accepts unequally distributed levels of status and power among its members, and higher levels of collectivism

the men in these countries (like China and India) report being more likely to commit sex-based harassment than men in the US

Question 21

What is proposed by researchers as the primary motivation for sex-based harassment?

Answer 21

the desire to protect one’s own sex-based status and punish people who deviate from traditional gender roles

women with more agentic traits, who are less feminine, who identify as feminists are at higher risk
women in male-dominated organizations experience more harassment

Question 22

Why are women in male-dominated organizations at a higher risk for harassment?

Answer 22

women’s presence challenges the legitimacy of men’s higher social status, threatens their gender status

men who violate gender norms more frequently experience sex-based harassment, typically by other men

Question 23

What is INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE?

Answer 23

any behaviour intended to cause physical harm to a romantic partner

Question 24

What are the relevant statistics regarding intimate partner violence?

Answer 24

The WHO reports that 30% of women worldwide will experience intimate partner violence in their lives

intimate partners commit as many as 38% of all murders of women

Question 25

What is SITUATIONAL COUPLE VIOLENCE?

Answer 25

intimate partner violence that results when heated conflicts escalate; committed by men and women about equally

Question 26

What is INTIMATE TERRORISM?

Answer 26

intimate partner violence in which one partner (usually the man) repeatedly uses fear and violence to dominate and control the other

tends to escalate in severity over time, sometimes resulting in serious injury

often accompanied by control tactics

Question 27

What is SEXUAL ASSAULT?

Answer 27

unwanted sexual contact without the explicit consent of the victim

Question 28

What is RAPE?

Answer 28

nonconsensual penetration of the mouth, vagina, or anus by the penis, fingers, or objects

rape is a form of sexual assault, but not all sexual assault is rape

Question 29

What are the relevant statistics regarding sexual violence?

Answer 29

the WHO estimates that 1/3 of women will experience some form of physical or sexual violence

multi-racial women in the US are the most likely victims

in the US, 18% of women and 1.5% of men report being raped at least once in their lifetime

Question 30

What are some relevant features regarding occurrence of sexual violence?

Answer 30

the race of male perpetrators varies with the race of rape victims: Native American women are most likely to be assaulted by White men; Black and White women are most likely to be assaulted by same-race men

women’s status as empowered or marginalized matters as well

people at higher risk include girls and boys before the age of consent; women with developmental disabilities; women living in poverty or unhoused; sex workers; vulnerable undocumented immigrants; people living in areas of military conflict

Question 31

What is POLYVICTIMIZATION?

Answer 31

experiencing more than one type of aggressive victimization

predicts more severe trauma symptoms, even in comparison with repeated exposure to the same type of aggression

Question 32

What is the most relevant thing to remember about the relationship between alcohol and sexual assualt?

Answer 32

though research shows that alcohol intoxication plays a role in approx. half of all campus sexual assaults, the association between alcohol consumption and rape does not mean that consuming alcohol causes rape

Question 33

What are some of the reasons that self-report of rape underestimates the actual frequency of its occurrence?

Answer 33

unacknowledged rape: an experience that meets the legal definition but is not labelled as rape by the victim

scenarios like being highly intoxicated or being in a relationship with the perpetrator influence identification of an event as rape

Question 34

Who commits sexual violence?

Answer 34

most rapists are men&raquo_space; in the US, men committed 98% of rapes of girls and women, 93% of rapes of boys and men

rape victims usually know their attacker

Question 35

What are the factors that influence gender-based violence and aggression?

Answer 35

Person-level, individual factors
Biological factors
Sociocultural factors
Honor cultures
Precarious manhood
Power and structural gender inequality

Question 36

What are the person-level individual factors related to gender-based violence?

Answer 36

individuals who experienced childhood abuse or witnessed domestic abuse are more likely to commit

individuals who have difficulty regulating their emotions are more likely to commit

among men, factors like: having more adverse childhood events, more anti-social personality traits, engaging in more risky behaviour, greater average physical size and strength

Question 37

What is the CONFLUENCE MODEL OF SEXUAL AGGRESSION?

Answer 37

2 primary factors that predict men’s sexual aggression against women are:
1) hostile attitudes towards women
2) a preference for impersonal sex that lacks emotional closeness

these 2 factors jointly predict male-to-female sexual assault among college students, community samples, and sex offenders

Question 38

What are the biological factors related to gender-based violence?

Answer 38

Testosterone
Evolved jealousy > paternity uncertainty may mean evolved heightened sensitivity to cues of infidelity

Question 39

What are the sociocultural factors related to gender-based violence?

Answer 39

the idea that men are “predators” and women are “prey” is a common metaphor in popular media

cultures vary widely in aggressive tendencies

Question 40

What are HONOR CULTURES?

Answer 40

a culture in which individual and family honor is at the centre of all social life and men are expected to defend their own and their family’s honor with violence if necessary

middle east, southeast asia, latin america, southern USA

Question 41

What are HONOR KILLINGS?

Answer 41

the murder of a (typically female) family member who is perceived to have brought shame or dishonor to the family

Question 42

What is PRECARIOUS MANHOOD?

Answer 42

men may use aggression to “save face” following challenges to their gender status

people in many cultures view manhood as more precarious than womanhood, as something that must be proven and can be lost

Question 43

What is MALE DISCREPANCY STRESS?

Answer 43

anxiety that boys and men feel about not living up to masculine expectations set by society
» men may commit more violence against intimate partners to the extent that they are higher in this stress

Question 44

What is SOCIOECONOMIC DEPENDENCE PERSPECTIVE?

Answer 44

proposes that when men have more power and financial resources than women, they might be more likely to use intimate partner violence as a means of exerting and maintaining control

countries characterized by greater gender inequality also tend to have higher national levels of male-to-female violence

Question 45

what is STATUS INCONSISTENCY PERSPECTIVE?

Answer 45

when men are in relationships with female partners who have greater status and financial power than they do, they may feel emasculated and thus use intimate partner violence to exert power

Question 46

What are some forms of systematic aggression against women in the world, and what problems do these pose to the idea of sexual violence?

Answer 46

Female genital mutilation > reflects beliefs in modesty, reduces sexual libido, increases girls’ and women’s desirability as partners

Child marriage

Because these practices take place in cultures that value the practices, and these are considered to enhance value and desirability, is it still “aggression” ?

Question 47

What is SEX TRAFFICKING?

Answer 47

the forced, nonconsensual recruitment and retention of persons for sexual use and exploitation

estimated 4.5 million victims worldwide, most being girls and women

Question 48

What is I3 (I-Cubed) THEORY?

Answer 48

examines intimate partner violence through the lens of self-regulation, and can explain violence across relationship types, not just heterosexual ones

whether or not a conflict escalates into intimate partner violence depends on the interplay of 3 processes:
1) Instigation
2) Impellance: dispositional or situational forces
3) Inhibition

Intimate partner violence is a product of competing urges to be aggressive and to inhibit aggression following partner provocation

Question 49

What are the contemporary research views on the influence of violent pornography on intimate partner violence?

Answer 49

findings are inconsistent, community is divided

some individuals are more likely to seek out pornography, and more likely to be negatively impacted by it&raquo_space; individuals who show the greatest negative effects are men who were already predisposed toward sexual aggression and who watch porn frequently

while some porn exhibits aggressive acts against women, research has not shown any direct causal link

a lot of non-pornographic media aimed at men tend to describe women using objectifying terms; improvements in sex education and how sex is depicted in the media could be beneficial

Question 50

What is the SEXUAL CALLOUSNESS MODEL?

Answer 50

a model proposing that repeated exposure to porn desensitizes and habituates viewers, leading to callous sexual attitudes towards women, can disinhibit viewers’ sexually aggressive tendencies