Unit 2: Nature vs. Nurture

Question 1

Give an example of how both nature and nurture are thought to contribute to the development of gender.

Answer 1

Gene-by-environment reactions are such that a genetic effect (gene expression) only occurs after someone is first exposed to a specific environmental context (hormone).

One’s lifestyle choices can also influence the genetic material they pass on to their children (epigenetics).

Question 2

What are GENES?

Answer 2

The basic units of heredity, passed down from parents to offspring, that carry the instructions for shaping the offspring’s characteristics

Question 3

What is a GENE-BY-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION?

Answer 3

An interaction which occurs when a genetic tendency emerges only under certain environmental circumstances, or when an environment shapes traits or behaviour only for individuals with particular genetic make-up

Question 4

What is a PASSIVE g-by-e interaction?

Answer 4

Parents create certain rearing environments that cannot be separated from a child’s genetic makeup

EX: parents who are genetically skilled at reading and pass along reading skills through genes and a reading-rich environment

Question 5

What is an EVOCATIVE g-by-e interaction?

Answer 5

An individual’s genetic tendency evokes specific treatment from others

EX: a boy with an active temperament who elicits rougher play with parents and peers

Question 6

What is an ACTIVE g-by-e interaction?

Answer 6

An individual’s tendency guides them to choose certain environments

EX: a genetically shy person deliberately chooses quieter environments than her more extroverted friend

Question 7

What are some examples of how nurture also influences nature?

Answer 7

when a child experiences more active play at a young age, it can alter their brain in ways it otherwise may not be.

when girls experience environments of higher family stress, they tend to menstruate earlier.

Question 8

What is the DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL?

Answer 8

people with a genetic predisposition for a mental disorder only develop the disorder when they experience certain stressful environmental circumstances

Question 9

What is GENETICS?

Answer 9

the study of genes and how physical traits are inherited

Question 10

What is EPIGENETICS?

Answer 10

the study of biological mechanisms that guide whether or not certain genes get expressed

Question 11

What are EPIGENETIC MARKERS?

Answer 11

molecular structures that sit on genes and instruct them to activate or deactivate
only certain genes are activated in particular cells, leading them to become different types

Question 12

What is SEX DIFFERENTIATION?

Answer 12

the complex processes that unfold as fertilized embryos transition into individuals with male, female, or intersex internal and external genitalia

Question 13

Briefly, what is the process for am embryo becoming male?

Answer 13

XY chromosomes + SRY gene = Testes and Testosterone&raquo_space; Penis and scrotum

Question 14

Briefly, what is the process for an embryo becoming female?

Answer 14

XX chromosomes > Ovaries > Estrogen, Progesterone > Vulva

Question 15

What are CHROMOSOMES?

Answer 15

organized units of genes; 1 of the 23 chromosome pairs is the ALLOSOME (sex chromosome) which contains the code for sex (X or Y)

Question 16

What are GONADS?

Answer 16

sex organs (ovaries or testes) that produce sex cells (eggs or sperm) and sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone)

Question 17

What are HORMONES?

Answer 17

chemical substances in the body that regulate bodily functions such as digestion, growth, reproduction

Question 18

What are some features of hormones in humans?

Answer 18

everyone produces all of the sex hormones, but in different amounts according to sex

testosterone is initially higher in male fetuses, then drops and remains low, surging in the first 6 months of life (as estrogen does in females)

hormone levels stay about the same until puberty, when testosterone production increases again; by adulthood, men have a significantly higher concentration

Question 19

What is the GENITAL TUBERCLE?

Answer 19

The undifferentiated embryonic structure that becomes the clitoris or the penis

Question 20

What are DIFFERENCES OF SEX DEVELOPMENT (DSD)?

Answer 20

conditions present at birth in which sex development varies from the norm in terms of chromosomes, gonads, or anatomy

Question 21

How can the SRY gene potentially lead to a DSD?

Answer 21

SRY is the testis-determining gene, typically on the Y chromosome.

If SRY appears on the X chromosome, an XX fetus (female) appears male

If SRY does not work properly on the Y chromosome, an XY fetus (male) develops as female

Question 22

What is ANDROGEN INSENSITIVITY SYNDROME?

Answer 22

cells fail to interact with masculinizing androgens > XY (male) appears female at birth

may be caused by an X-linked mutation of the androgen receptor that results in incomplete masculinization

individuals usually have normal male levels of testosterone and DHT but do not exhibit normal masculinization of genitalia and secondary sex characteristics

Question 23

What are the ways that Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome can present?

Answer 23

1) a woman lacking public hair, who identifies as female (complete AIS)
2) undervirilized men (partial AIS)
3) intersex (ambiguous genitalia)

Question 24

What is COMPLETE ANDROGEN INSENSITIVITY SYNDROME?

Answer 24

the cells of the body do not respond to androgens at all
genetic males (XY) appear female at birth and typically express a female gender identity

Question 25

What is CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA?

Answer 25

genetic female (XX) is exposed to high levels of masculinizing hormones prenatally due to malfunctioning adrenal gland

internal female reproductive organs but tend to have male-appearing external genitalia

typically AFAB with a higher incidence of gender fluidity

Question 26

What is HYPERANDROGENISM?

Answer 26

medical condition characterized by excess of androgens in the female body

Question 27

What are the 4 typical deviations in the XX/XY patterns?

Answer 27

1) Turner’s Syndrome - X - typically identify as female
2) Triple X Syndrome - XXX - typically identify as female
3) Klinefelter’s Syndrome - XXY - typically identify as male
4) Jacob’s Syndrome - XYY - typically identify as male

Question 28

What appears to be true about the presence of a Y chromosome?

Answer 28

The presence of a Y chromosome strongly predicts male appearance and gender identity, but a certain chromosomal pattern is not required for a certain gender identity.

Question 29

What is OPTIMAL SEX?

Answer 29

the binary sex that doctors and parents perceive as the best option for a newborn whose genitals appear atypical at birth

Question 30

Describe John Money’s Optimal Sex Policy.

Answer 30

intersex infants should be socialized as either boys or girls in the first 18 months of life

early corrective surgery on genitals that were not clearly male or female, followed by hormone therapy

viewed intersex infants as a probem to be solved, and the solution was to modify them to fit into the binary

Question 31

What are contemporary stances on intersex infants?

Answer 31

Optimal Sex Policy is increasingly rejected and it is recommended that surgeries and therapies are postponed until the child is old enough to understand and provide consent (or not)

Question 32

What are GENDER CONFIRMATION PROCEDURES?

Answer 32

procedures (hormone treatments, surgeries, speech therapies, psychotherapies) that transgender individuals sometimes seek to bring their physical bodies into greater alignment with their psychological identities

Question 33

What are some sex difference findings based on neurological imaging?

Answer 33

Male brains are an average of 11% larger in volume.
Women show greater volume and density in the frontal pole cortex (strategic planning and decision making).
Men show greater volume and density in the left hippocampus (memory, learning, emotion) and left amygdala (processing and expressing emotion, fear)

Question 34

What is the current stance on brain structural differences and sex differences?

Answer 34

We don’t fully understand if structural sex differences relate to psychological sex differences.
Gene-environment reactions and brain plasticity render the brain susceptible to various influences throughout an individual’s development

Question 35

What is NEUROSEXISM?

Answer 35

interpreting the findings from neuroscience research in ways that reinforce gender stereotypes without providing valid supporting evidence

Question 36

What are some examples of neurosexism?

Answer 36

when researchers catalog structural sex differences without relating them to functional differences

a focus on structural sex differences can imply that these differences are rooted in biological factors, which is not necessarily true

such practices can reinforce essentialist beliefs that men and women have inherent, unique, and natural attributes that make them 2 qualitatively different sexes

Question 37

What is the evolutionary psychology perspective on sex differences?

Answer 37

Men and women would’ve faced different adaptive problems in the domains where they differ the most

women face problems having to do with pregnancy, giving birth, nursing
men face problems with needing to ensure the paternity of the child is their own
different behaviours were adapted around these areas

Question 38

What is SEXUAL SELECTION?

Answer 38

the process by which heritable features make an organism more or less likely to reproduce and pass on its genes

Question 39

What is INTRASEXUAL SELECTION?

Answer 39

heritable features that get passed down because they give an animal a competitive advantage in contests against same-sex animals for access to mates

EX: male bighorn sheep use their large curved horns to head-butt rivals
EX: human men evolved qualities like large physical size, physical strength and competitive/aggressive tendencies to challenge other males

Question 40

What is INTERSEXUAL SELECTION?

Answer 40

heritable features that are passed down because they give an animal an advantage by increasing its attractiveness to other-sex mates

EX: male peacocks
EX: women often show a stronger preference for high-status, resource rich males bc they can be better supported during their longer period of parental investment with children

Question 41

What are some criticisms of evolutionary psychology?

Answer 41

environmental and cultural cues interact with evolved tendencies in order to shape preferences

it is speculative and difficult to test empirically

reinforces the sex binary and is heteronormative

Question 42

What is BIOSOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST THEORY?

Answer 42

the key to understanding sex differences and similarities is in the division of labor in society

Question 43

What are the implications of biosocial constructionist theory?

Answer 43

1) men and women must acquire different skills, which children learn early in life.
Girls are socialized to be caregivers; boys are socialized to be physically active risk-takers.

2) People form expectations about the qualities and abilities of men and women as a result of their socialized skills and gendered social roles.
women are expected to have communal traits and beahviours; men are expected to be more aggressive, independent

Question 44

According to biosocial constructionist theory, what should occur as our societies change over time?

Answer 44

These changes should lead to different (and more similar) skills and expectations for men and women, and therefore, changes to gender stereotypes

Question 45

What should be included in a comprehensive theory of sex differences and similarities?

Answer 45

An interactionist view, influence of both nature and nurture.

Address how a range of physical and biological differences may produce different behaviours and traits.

Move beyond the binaries.

Acknowledge that the environment can alter physiology and biology in subtle ways that have significant consequences.

Question 46

What is a SPANDREL?

Answer 46

A phenotypic trait that is the byproduct of the evolution of some other characteristic, rather than a direct product of adaptive selection

EX: navigation in males is a skill that arises out of their biological predisposition to be better at visual spatial skills