Unit 5: Memory Flashcards
Hierarchies
processing information not only in chunks but also in hierarchies composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrow concepts and facts, (helps people achieve expertise in an area)
Spacing Effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through masses study or practice
Testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
Mnemonic
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Shallow Processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
George Miller 7 +/- 2
proposed that short-term memory can retain about seven information bits (give or take two)
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
automatic processing (space)
the tendency to remember the location of a piece of information (ex; visualizing the location of a specific bit of information on a page)
automatic processing (time)
The tendency to remember a sequence of events (ex; retracing your steps after losing something)
automatic processing (frequency)
The tendency to take note of how many times things happen (ex; passing someone for the nth time in one day)
effortless processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and ‘declare” (also known as declarative memory)
Working memory (Alan Baddeley)
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge skills and experiences
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) process of most computers and of conscious problem-solving
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory stage
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval if information
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Long-term potentiation
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
mood-congruent theory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
repression
in psychoanalytic theory; the basic defence mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
Deja vu
The eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”. Cues from the current situation that may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
Divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit conscious reasoning
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness) we presume such events are common
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
belief perserverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments
