Unit 5 Lectures Flashcards
What is the function of the respiratory system?
- Conduction of gases to and from lungs
- Protection of respiratory surfaces
- Sound production
- Defense against airborne pathogens
- Gas exchange (o2 coming in, co2 leaving)
- Regulation of blood volume, BP, pH, etc
What are the zones of the respiratory system?
Conduction zone and respiratory zone
What is the conduction zone?
This is the pathway that leads to the lungs
- transports air
- warms, humidifies, and filters air
- sound production
What is the respiratory zone?
This is the area inside of our lungs
- defense mechanisms
- gas exchange
- regulation of blood properties
What is the conductive zone tracing?
nose - nasal cavity - pharynx - larynx - trachea - bronchi - terminal bronchioles
What is the respiratory zone tracing?
Respiratory bronchioles - alveolar ducts - alveolar sacs - alveoli
What process occurs at the alveoli?
Gas exchange
What are the two components of gas exchange?
External respiratory and internal respiratory
What is the difference between external respiratory and internal respiratory?
External: lungs and blood stream
Internal: blood and oxygen starved tissues
Why is it important for our nasal cavity to have PSCC?
Because they have goblet cells that secrete mucus which filter debris
What is the overall function of the nasal cavity?
It consists of nasal conchae and ridges that swirl air and throw it against mucus to create sticky wall and filter debris. It is also highly vascular to warm the air
What are the 3 parts of the pharynx?
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
What areas does the nasopharynx cover?
hard palate to uvula
What areas does the oropharynx cover?
Fauces (end of soft palate) to the hyoid bone
What areas does the laryngopharynx cover?
hyoid bone to esophagus
Why is the oropharynx and laryngopharynx lined with stratigies squamous tissue?
Because this tissue protects them from abrasion
What is the difference between the fauces and the epiglottis?
Both are flaps found in our pharynx
Fauces: ensures food does not go from mouth to nose
Epiglottis: ensures food does not go to respiratory system
The pharynx is known as the ____ while the larynx is known as the ______
Pharynx: throat
Larynx: voicebox
What are the parts of the larynx?
Thyroid cartilage (largest in this region)
Laryngeal prominence (on thyroid cartilage)
Epiglottis
Cricoid Cartilage
What creates a guys adam’s apple?
Enlarged thyroid cartilage
What is the difference of vocal cords between women/ children and men
Women and children: vocal cords are thinner causing a higher pitched voice
Men: vocal cords become thicker after puberty, causing a deep voice
What are the parts of the trachea?
Carina (end of trachea, where it splits)
C-shaped cartilage rings
Trachealis muscle (posterior)
What is the difference between the right and left bronchus?
Right: wider and vertical
Left: narrow and horizontal
If you inhale something pastthe carina, which bronchi is it more likely to go into?
Right
What happens to lungs with asthma?
There is swelling of the tubes and an increase of mucus secretion
There are ____ to _____ million alveoli
300-500 million alveoli
Where does the majority of gas exchange occur?
Alveoli
What are the cells of the alveoli (inside the lung)?
Type 1 Cells
Dust cells
Type 2 cells
What are the functions of type 1 cells?
gas diffusion
What is the function of dust cells?
These cells hold alveolar macrophages that remove pathogen and debris from the lungs
What is the function of type 2 cells?
Produce surfactant, reduce surface tension, allow lungs to stay inflated
What is surfactant?
It is a fluid secreted by type 2 cells into the alveolar space to reduce surface tension and prevent the collapse of alveoli
What is respiratory distress syndrome?
Mainly occurs during fetal development. By about 7-8 months, surfactant should be produced. if an infant is born prematurely, they can have little or no surfactant and whenever they beathe, their alveoli will collapse
It can happen in adults but it means their lung is disease
What is emphysema?
Progressive disease, mainly common in long-term smokers or those who work around chemicals. It causes alveolar walls to be destroyed , constricts capillaries, and reduces surface area of gas exchange. The elastic fibers can also breakdown
Smokers who have been smoking for over 40 years have what condition?
Emphysema, 100% have it
Where are our lungs housed?
Pleural cavity
What are the pleural membranes?
Parietal (membrane that lines the cavity)
Visceral (membrane that lines the lungs)
Both secrete pleural fluid
What is the function of pleural fluid?
To seal the membranes together
What are the lobes of our right lung?
Superior lobe
Middle lobe
Inferior lobe
What are the lobes of our left lung?
Superior lobe
Inferior lobe
What are the 2 general categories of muscles we use?
Inspiration muscles and expiration muscles
What is inspiration? What muscles are found here?
Inspiration: inhaling
when inhaling we use the diaphragm and external intercostals
What is expiration?
Passive process and muscle relax
What controls breathing?
Since it is a reflux, it is controlled by the medulla oblongata and the pons
How does breathing work?
When we inhale, our external intercostals contract and the diaphragm moves down, our rib cage expands
When we exhale, muscles relax, diaphragm moves back up and elastic of lungs recoils
What happens to pressure when inhaling?
When you inhale, the throacic, pleural cavity volume and lung volume increases so pressure drops
How does the medulla oblongata and pons work with our heart to control breathing?
If they detect low amounts of co2 in the heart (through chemoreceptors), it will cause an increase rate of breathing so we can get more oxygen
What does nicotine do to our lungs?
It constricts terminal bronchioles
What does Carbon monoxide do to our lungs
binds to hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen to the body) so less oxygen is available for other organs
What does the irritants in smoke do to us?
- increases mucus production
- swells the tissue of respiratory tubules
- reduces the function and destroys cilia (hair like appendages that help move debris and substances out of the lungs)
What happens to long term smokers?
Their elastic fibers breakdown and their bronchioles collapse. They can also develop a form of emphysema
What are the general tunics of the digestive tract?
Tunica mucosa
Tunica submucosa
Tunica muscularis (circular and longitudinal)
Tunica externa (adventitia and serosa)
What does the tunica mucosa consist of?
It is the deepest layer (inside the stomach) and has a muscularis mucosa at the bottom
What does the tunica submucosa consist of?
veins, arteries, capillaries and the submucosal plexus
What does the tunica muscularis consist of?
two layers; circular and longitudinal, in between those there is a myenteric plexus
What tunics are in the stomach?
Tunica mucosa
Tunica submucosa
Tunica muscularis (circular, longitudinal, and oblique)
Tunica externa
What structures does the ilium have?
villi, peyer’s patch, intestinal glands
What structures does the duodenum have?
Duodenal glands
What is the function of our digestive system?
Ingestion Mechanical digestion Propulsion Chemical Digestion Absorption Defacation
What is the GI tract tracing?
oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ilium), large intestine (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid), rectum, anus
What are mesenteries?
Connective tissue that connects our organs together and anchor them to our body
What are the mesenteries found in our abdominal region?
Falciform ligament, lesser omentum, greater omentum, mesentery proper, mesocolon
What is the falciform ligament?
Seperates liver into 2 (left and right) and attaches it to the anterior abdominal wall
What is the lesser omentum?
It connects the stomach from the liver
What is the greater omentum?
Comes down from stomac and lays like a fat apron over the small intestines
What is the mesentery proper?
It attaches the small intestines to the back wall of the abdominal cavity
What is the mesocolon?
It attaches the large intestine to the back wall of the abdominal cavity
What digestive organs are part of the retroperotineal space?
ascending and descending colon
Rectum
Pancreas
Duodenum
What mouth strucutre helps guide food down the pharynx?
The uvula
what is enamel?
The hard white covering of the teeth
What is the difference between peristalsis and swallowing?
Swallowing: can be voluntary or involuntary
Peristalsis: muscular contraction waves that move the food through GI tract
Is the esophagus controlled by swallowing or peristalsis ?
Peristalsis
What sphincter is at our esophagus?
Cardiac sphincter: pretty weak, can cause our stomach acid to move up and create acid reflux
What is the main function of the stomach?
Very acidic and functions to breakdown proteins into amino acids
What substance does our stomach use to breakdown proteins?
HCl which gives it a pH of 2-3
What are the 2 types of cells in the stomach?
Chief and Parietal
What are chief cells?
Cells that secrete pepsinogen (a precursor to pepsin)
What are parietal cells?
They make HCl
What is pepsin?
An enzyme that is responsible for breaking down protein
What organ secretes pepsin?
Gastric glands
What property MUST the stomach have in order to prevent self destruction?
In order to prevent self-destruction from acidic conditions, the stomach must have large amounts of mucus
Why is it important for the stomach to have 3 muscle layers (tunica muscularis)?
Because it allows it to contract and digest food through segmentation
What sphincter is found at the stomach?
At the end of the stomach, we have a pyloric sphincter (strong) and it helps pass food to small intestine
What substances can the stomach absorb?
water, electrolytes, some drugs (aspirin) and alcohol
What enzyme is secreted by the stomach to break down alcohol? why?
Alcohol dehydrogenase to make it less toxic
What are the 3 parts of the small intestine?
Dudoenum, Jejunum, and Ilium
What small intestine segment has secretions from pancreas and liver?
Duodenum
What substances does the duodenum breakdown?
Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
What are submucosal glands?
These are glands found in the duodenum that secrete bicarbonate to neutralize the acidity
Which small intestine area has the most amount of absorption? Why?
The jejunum, it has enlarge villi and plicae
What is the last segment of the small intestine that takes food to the large intestine?
Ilium, specifically the ileocecal valve
What is the difference plicae, villi, and microvilli?
Plicae: ridges in the inner surface of intestine
Villi: finger-like projections that have lacteal to absorb fats and capillaries for non-lipid nutrients
Microvilli: Are found on the cells that make up the villi and they create a brushed border
What is the primary function of the large intestine?
absorb water, vitamins, compaction, and defacation
What are the accessory structures of the large intestine?
Appendix, taneia coli, colon, haustra
What gland is found in the oral cavity? what does it secrete? what does the secretion break down?
Salivary glands, they secrete salivary amylase and they breakdown carbohydrates
What cells are found in the stomach? What does it secrete? what does the secretion break down?
Parietal and chief cells secrete HCl and Pepsinogen which combined make pepsin. This secretion break down proteins
What cells are found in the small intestine? What does it secrete? what does the secretion break down?
Absorptive cells secrete brush border enzymes and break down carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids
What does the liver and gallbladder secrete into the small intestine? What does the secretion break down?
Liver and gallbladder secrete bile salts into the small intestine and this secretion breaks down lipids
What does the pancreas secrete into the small intestine? What does the secretion break down?
Pancreas secretes pancreatic enzymes which break down carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
What are the three main types of salivary glands?
Parotid
Sublingual
Submandibular
The teeth begin the process of ________ digestion
Mechanical digestion
What are the different types of teeth? How many of each do we have per quadrant?
4 incisors (front teeth) 2 canines (sharp teeth) 4 premolars 6 molars (before removal of wisdom teeth)
What are canines used for?
Grabbing food
What are premolar teeth used for?
shearing food
What are molars used for?
grinding food
What is pancreatitis?
This occurs when pancreatic enzymes escape the pancreatic duct and there is digestion of the pancreatic cells
What are the two types of pancreatitis?
Acute: severe and deadly
Chronic: slow and less severe
What can increase the risk of pancreatitis?
Alcohol consumption
What is the largest visceral organ?
The liver
What is the function of the liver?
- remove toxins from blood
- store and release glucose
- produce plasma proteins
- produce bile salts
Everything we eat is absorbed in the __________ and goes to the ________ right away.
Everything we eat is absorbed in the small intestine and goes to the liver right away
What is the hepatic portal system?
This is the system that returns blood from digestive system to the liver?
What is a hepatic triad?
It consists of hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, and a bile duct
What are kupffer cells?
cells in the liver that detoxify and clean out the blood
What are bile salts?
These are made in the liver and help emulsify fats in the small intestine (released in duodenum)
Where are bile salts stored?
They are stored in the gall bladder until needed
What is cirrhosis?
This occurs when the arrangement of liver cells become disorganized and cause scarring of the liver. Specifically, the hepatic artery and portal veins are scarred so there is not filtration of blood
What can types of impairment can be caused by cirrhosis?
- portal hypertension (high bp in liver)
- fluid leakage into abdomen
- gynecomastia (enlarged breasts)
- Other organs such as rectum, anus, esophagus can enlarge due to overflow of blood
What are the organs of the urinary system?
Kidneys, ureters, urethra, bladder
What is the role of the kidney?
Produce urine
What is the role of ureter?
Transport urine
What is the role of the bladder?
Store urine
What is the role of the urethra?
Conduct urine
Where are kidneys found?
Between T12 and L3
What anchors the kidneys to the abdominal wall?
The renal fascia
What is the difference between right and left side of kidney?
The right is slightly lower because of the liver
What protects the kidney?
Adipose capsule
What are the general internal regions of the kidney?
Medulla and cortex
What structures are in the medulla?
Pyramids, loop of henle
What structures are in the cortex?
renal corpuscles, convoluted tubules and renal columns
How does urine move through ureters (what movement)?
Peristalsis
How do the ureters connect to bladder?
Posterior, through a slit like opening
What are kidney stones?
They are made from kidney casts which is a solid made out of calcium mineral and acid salts.
Where are kidney stones trapped?
Minor calyx
Who is more likely to get kidney stones?
Men
The urinary bladder is directly behind what bone?
Pubic bone
The layers of the bladder are also known as the
detrusor muscles
How many cups of urine can the bladder hold?
Usually 2 but max is 4
What is the trigone?
It is part of the bladder found at the 2 ureter openings and the urethra
What is the primary site for UTIs
Trigone
What are the 2 urethral sphincters?
Internal urethral sphincter (involuntary, smooth)
External urethral sphincter (voluntary, skeletal)
What is another name for the external urethral sphincter?
Urogenital muscle
How long is the male uretra?
7-8 in from bladder to penis
How long is the female urethra?
1-1.5 inches
What condition is common for females to get in urinary system?
Cystitis because if colon bacteria (from anus) goes to the urethra (when wiping), we can get a UTI
Micturition is known as
the process of urination
Urinating is a reflex, how does it work?
once the bladder is halfway full (2 cups), it will activate stretch receptors to stimulate neurons and activate the reflex arc of the spinal cord. This will cause the internal urethral sphincter to relax (urge of pee) and the external urethral sphincter to contract (if not ready)
What is the artery that brings in oxygenated blood to the kidney?
Renal artery
The filtration site for the kidney is the
glomerulus
What is an important feature of the capillaries in the glomerulus?
The capillaries are fenestrated (hole)
How many nephrons do we have per kidneys?
about 1 million
What are the main functions for the nephrons?
filtration, reabsorption and secretion
What are the two tpes of nephrons?
Cortical (closest to cortex) Juxtamedullary nephrons (closest to medulla)
What part of the nephron is in the cortex? what part is in the medulla?
Renal corpuscle and convolutued tubules are in the cortex
Loop of henle is in the medulla
How is the renal corpuscle developed?
The bowmans capsule will wrap around the glomerulus creating two surfaces
Outer: parietal
Inner: visceral
Wat should NOT pass through renal corpuscle?
blood cells
What are the two arterioles of the nephron?
Afferent arteriole: bringing blood in
Efferent arteriole: taking blood out
What cells are in between the afferent arteriole and distal convoluted tubule?
The JG apparatus
What is the function of the JG apparatus?
To release hormones at kidney if needed
What two hormones are secreted by JG apparatus?
Renin: for low BP
Erythropoietin: stimulate production of RBC
What is the function of the scrotum?
It allows for temperature regulation of sperm (to produce viable, healthy sperm)
What other structures are part of the scrotum?
Crematus muscle
What is the function of the crematus muscle?
Structure of scrotum and can pull testes closer to body (if warmth is needed) or pull them away (if too hot)
What anchors the testes?
The gubernaculum testes (connective tissue)
What is the descent of the testes?
This is during fetal development and this means that the testes, over time, descend from the abdominopelvic cavity to the scrotum, bringing alogn nerves, vessels, and ducts
What is cryptorchidism?
When the testes do not descend properly, this condition mainly occurs in premature babies because teste descending usually occurs at about 8 months.
What is the inguinal canal?
It is an opening in the groin area that is a path from abdominal wall to the internal groin area
What is an inguinal hernia?
This is when the small intestine accidentally pushes through the inguinal canal
Where do we find developing sperm?
The testes, specifically, the seminiferous tubules
The production of sperm is known as
Spermatogenesis
What cells are found near the sperm cells?
The nurse cells that nourish and protect the developing sperm
What is the function of the epididymis?
Store sperm (about 2 weeks)
What type of tissue is found in the epididymis? Why?
PSCC, since sperm is stored here, the tissuemust not move unless by ejaculation
What happens to sperm at epididymis if there is no ejaculation?
It will be recycled
What is the path of the vas deferens?
Sperm goes into the ductus deferens which ascends inguinal canal (within spermatic cord), and up/around urinary bladder
The enlarged region of the vas deferns is the _________
Ampulla
What structure does the vas deferens connect with?
Ejaculatory duct (inside prostate gland)
What happens when men get a vesctomy?
The ductus deferens is cut and tied so even if ejaculation occurs, there is no sperm
Where is the prostate located?
Below urinary bladder
What structure is around the developing sperm?
Nurse cells, they help protect and nourish the sperm
How do nurse cells protect the developing sperm?
They form a blood-sperm barrier
What structure is found in between the seminiferous tubules that secrete hormones?
the interstitial cells (in between seminifierous tubules) secrete testosterone.
What happens to the interstitial cells during puberty?
They grow in size and begin to aid in sperm production
Once sperm cells mature, where do they move to?
They go from seminiferous tubules of the testes into the epididymis
What are the two outcomes of sperm in the epididymis?
Ejaculation (continues through male reproductive system)
Recycling (sperm cells not in use are recycled)
What happens if ejaculation occurs?
If ejaculation occurs, the mature sperm of the epididymis will move into the ductus deferens (which goes up the inguinal canal, behind and around the bladder, to exit the penis (through urethra)
What is the ampulla of the ductus deferens?
It is an enlarged region of the tube (on top of the seminal vesicle)
What is the overall path of the ductus deferens?
Sperm enters ductus deferens during ejaculation (from epididymis) and goes up the inguinal canal, around and behind the bladder, pass the ampulla, connects with ejaculatory duct (inside prostate gland) and finally exit through the urethra.
What happens during vasectomies?
The ductus deferens is cut and tied so even if ejaculation occurs, sperm is not being produced.
What is the role of the seminal vesicles?
They make up about 60% of the semen and they provide fructose and fibrinogen (clotting factor) for the sperm). They also give the sperm prostaglandins (a hormone) that causes peristalsis of the uterus so the sperm can reach the reproductive system.
What does sperm need for energy?
Fructose, provided by the seminal vesicles
What is the pH of the semen? why?
Since the vagina is a bit acidic, the semen has to be alkaline to neutralize the vaginal secretions
What is the role of the prostate gland? what does it secrete?
The prostate gland has seminal plasmin which is a hormone that has antibiotic properties to help prevent UTIs
When does the prostate gland enlarge?
40 years
What is an issue that can arise from an enlarge prostate gland?
It can tighten the urethra and make it difficult to empty the bladder
What is the bulbourethral gland?
It is a small structure located on the external urethral sphincter that is responsible for pre-ejaculation
What is the function of the bulbourethral gland?
Lubricate the glans penis and clean urethra
What are the 3 tubes of erectile tissue?
Corpora Cavernosa (2) Corpus Spongiosum (1)
What structure is found in between the 3 tubes of the penis?
Urethra, specifically the spongy urethra
What is the dorsal vein? How is it related to erections?
The dorsal vein can be restricted to keep blood inside the erectile tissue and produce an erection
What is the tip of the penis? what is it covered with?
The tip of the penis is known as the glans penis and it is covered with prepuce (which can be cut when circumcised)
What are the female sex organs?
Ovaries, uterine (fallopian) tube, uterus, vagina, cervix
What are the 3 layers of the uterus?
Perimetrium (outside)
Myometrium (middle)
Endometrium (inside)
What layer is sloughed off every month for menstruation?
Endometrium
What is the cervix?
Region at the bottom of the uterus
What is a mucus plug?
A mucus plug usually closes off the cervix but during ovulation, it will break down to allow sperm to come in
Most women have which type of uterus?
Normal position, anteverted and anteflexed
What does anteverted mean?
Uterus sits on bladder
What does anteflexed mean?
Fundus of uterus tilts forward
What is a retroverted uterus?
When the uterus is tilted (not on bladder)
What is a retroverted and retroflexed uterus?
this is when the uterus is flipped (faces backwards) and it tilts backwards at the cervix
What position of the uterus can cause painful sexual intercourse?
Retroverted and retroflexed
What is the hymen?
Thick vascular diaphragm at the entrance to the vagina
What is the vaiginal orifice?
Opening to the vagina
What is the role of the female vestibular glands?
pre-ejaculate lubrication for women
The vestibular glands of the female anatomy are similar to the __________ of the male anatomy
bulbourethral gland
What is the mons pubis?
Fat pad over the pubic bone
What is the name of the outer lips of the female anatomy?
Labia majora
What is the name of the inner lips of the female anatomy?
Labia minora
What is the labia majora covered with?
Keratinized skin and hair
The labia majora is the same as the ______ of the male anatomy
Scrotum
What is the labia minora covered with?
Mucus membrane, made of erectile tissue
What is the clitoris?
A small “bulb” made of erectile tissue, coveredwith mucus membrane
The clitoris is the same as the ________ of the male anatomy
Glans penis
What covers the clitoris?
Prepuce hood
what are the female gonads?
Ovaries
What are follicles?
Small sacs inside the ovary that secrete hormones
What are the 2 parts of a follicle?
Oocyte (the egg) and follicular cells (for protection
What do follicular cells secrete?
Estrogen to help with growth and repair of the endometrium
What is the corpus luteum?
Cells in an ovary that release progesterone and estrogen
What happens when progesterone is released?
It stimulates the thickening of the endometrium for fertilization, if no fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum shrivels up and menstruation will occur
What is middleschmertz?
A condition which people feel the release of an egg
What happens once ovulation occurs?
The egg will burst out of the ovary and be caught in the fallopian tube. The first part of the fallopian tube they will pass through is the fimbriae and infundibulum. then, it move along the fallopian tube until it reaches the uterus
What moves the egg along the fallopian tubes?
PSCC
How long for the egg to pass through the fallopian tubes?
3-5 days
What happens when someone ties their tubes?
The egg will not be able to move to the uterus and the sperm will not reach the egg in the first place
Why is it important for sperm count to be high?
Because not all of them make it to the egg, we start with millions of sperm cells and only 1 makes it
How long can sperm live inside the reproductive system of a female?
5 days
Where does fertilization occur?
Ampullae
How does fertilization occur?
It starts in the ampullaeand as it goes through the tube, it will be forming an embryo. This will implant inside the endometrium (after about 7-10 days of fertilization)
What happens when giving birth?
The myometrium contracts and cause the cervix to dilate and push the baby out
