Unit 5 exam cards Flashcards
True or false: the lungs are the ONLY cite where CO2 and O2 can enter or leave the body?
true
what is the equation for pH homeostasis and the interaction of CO2 with H+ (pH)
CO2 + H2O <–> H2CO3 <–> HCO3- + H+
(H2CO3 = carbonic acid, and HCO3 = bicarbonate)
Fill in the blank:
CO2 +_____ <–> H2CO3 <–> HCO3- + H+
H2O
Fill in the blank:
CO2 + H2O <–>_____ <–> HCO3- + H+
H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
Fill in the blank:
CO2 + H2O <–> H2CO3 <–> _____ + H+
HCO3- (bicarbonate)
Other than the respiratory system what also helps to regulate pH
the kidneys, but MUCH slower than the respiratory system
what is the normal set point for pH in the body
7.4 (7.35-7.45)
what is the normal set point for CO2 in the body?
40 mmHg
what is the enzyme that is involved in the CO2/H+ ph equation
carbonic anhydrase
(catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and H2O into carbonic acid)
_____ is the use of glucose, lipids, and O2 to produce ATP and CO2 in cells
cellular respiration
Gas exchange between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lung is known as the process of _____
ventilation
Gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood is known as _____. This is where O2 diffuses into the blood and CO2 diffuses into the alveoli.
external respiration
Gas exchange between the blood and the tissues of the body is called _____. This is where O2 diffuses into the cells and CO2 diffuses into the blood.
internal respiration
What would be the “fixers” for high CO2 (hint: in terms of the pH/CO2 equation)
Increased cardiac output, increased ventilation rate + depth, and bronchodilation
What would be the “fixers” for low CO2 (hint: in terms of the pH/CO2 equation)
Decreased cardiac output, decreased ventilation rate + depth, and bronchoconstriction
_____ is when there is too much CO2 in the body, therefore the pH of the body is more acidic.
respiratory acidosis
_____ is when there is too little CO2 in the body and therefore the pH of the body is more alkaline
respiratory alkalosis
What is the law of mass action (hint: relates to the equation for CO2 and pH)
the change in pH is directly related to the amount of CO2 in the body. The more CO2 in the body the more H+ ions and the more H+ ions will make the body more acidic.
High CO2 = High H+ = Low pH#
Ventilation rate and depth is controlled by the ____ and uses _____ as a neurotransmitter with _____ as a receptor on ______
Controlled by the Medulla Oblongata and pons.
the neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine released by a somatic motor neuron with Nm Nicotinic receptors on the diaphragm
Air flow resistance is controlled _____
antagonistically
Postganglionic neurons from the medulla oblongata and pons release _____ onto the ____ receptors on the bronchioles. This causes bronchoconstriction.
Acetylcholine on Muscarinic receptors
The adrenal medulla chromaffin cells release _____ onto the bronchioles with ____ receptors on them. This causes _____
epinephrine with Beta 2 receptors causing bronchodilation
What is the effector for ventilation rate and depth
Diaphragm skeletal muscle cells
what is the effector for air flow resistance
smooth muscle cells of the bronchioles
True or false: Gases move down pressure gradients just like fluids
true, they flow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
What is the exchange zone in the respiratory system
only the alveoli
what is the conducting zone in the respiratory system
everything but the alveoli. All of the structures are conducting air to the exchange zone.
What are the anatomical structures in the upper respiratory tract?
anything above the trachea.
(pharynx, nasal cavity, tongue, larynx, esophagus, vocal cords)
what are the anatomical structures in the lower respiratory tract
anything trachea and below
(trachea, lungs, bronchioles, diaphragm, alveoli etc)
What are the muscles between the ribs?
the intercostal muscles
What are the two pleural membranes and the pleural fluid? Function and structure?
the outer and inner pleural membranes. The outer one is attached to the ribs and the inner one is attached to the alveoli. Movement in the chest cavity causes the two membranes to come closer or farther away. The pleural fluid helps to press in or press out causing stretching of the alveoli.
Name the two types of alveoli
Alveolar cell type 1: gas exchange. They are very thin and delicate. These cells can scar really easily and impaired gas exchange.
alveolar cell type 2: surfactant production (keeps the lung tissue compliant)
The respiratory system allows oxygen into the blood so that it can be delivered to body cells for ATP production, a series of chemical reactions collectively referred to as ________. The respiratory system also allows an exit point for carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of this same process.
Cellular respiration
_______ is the technical term for the movement of air into the lungs.
Inspiration
_______ is the technical term for movement of air out of the lungs.
expiration
The ______ muscles are embedded between the rib bones and help you to breathe very deeply in and out above normal restful breathing
Intercostal
In the pulmonary circuit, arteries and arterioles carry _______ blood.
deoxygenated
In the pulmonary circuit, venules and veins carry ______ blood.
oxygenated
As you breath in through your mouth and/or nose, air first passes through this passageway at the back of your throat. Food and liquids also pass through this area when you are eating.
pharynx
this airway is the most superior part of lower respiratory tract.
trachea
To enter either the left or right lung, air flows through the left or right _____.
Bronchus
These tubes are small, collapsible passageways that are surround by smooth muscle cells. They are the transition zone between the main airways and the exchange epithelium of the lungs.
bronchioles
The terminal air sacs in the lungs are where oxygen can enter the pulmonary circulation and carbon dioxide can leave. They are called _____.
Alveoli
The main muscle that controls the rate and depth of breathing is _____. It also forms the floor of the thoracic cavity.
Diaphragm
There are two main types of cells that make up the walls of the terminal air sacs in the respiratory system. The _____ synthesize a chemical called surfactant and secrete it to mix with fluid in those air sacks. This mixture makes it easier for these air sacs to expand during breathing.
Type II pneumocytes/alveoli
The other cells that make of the walls of the terminal air sacs, called ______, are very thin so that gases can diffuse rapidly through them, in or out of the blood.
Type 1 pneumocytes/alveoli
Gases, like liquids, always move down a _____ gradient, from high to low.
pressure
Air is a mixed gas, made up of many individual gases like nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. There is also a little water vapor mixed in for good measure. This gas law states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by the individual gases.
dalton’s law
When we refer to the pressure of a single gas in a mixture, we put a “P” in front of the gas abbreviation (e.g., PO2). The “P” indicates, we are talking about the ______ for that specific gas (i.e., O2 in this case).
partial pressure
As the volume of your thoracic cavity and lungs increase, the pressure inside will decrease. Likewise, when the volume of your thoracic cavity and lungs decrease, the pressure inside will increase. This inverse relationship between pressure and volume represents this gas law.
Boyle’s law
As the diaphragm contracts and flattens, that increases the volume of your lungs and decreases the pressure inside to a level just below the constant atmospheric pressure. When this happens, you will ________. (Inspire or Expire)
Inspire
when your diaphragm relaxes, it goes back to its original dome shape. This decreases the volume of your lungs and increases the pressure inside to a level just above the constant atmospheric pressure. When this happens, you will _______. (Inspire or Expire)
expire
If you “breath quietly”, the volume of air that moves during a single inspiration or expiration is called _______.
tidal volume
After you take a normal, restful breath in, there is still a lot of lung volume yet to be used. The lung volume above restful breathing that you tap into during exercise is called _______.
inspiratory reserve volume
A lung capacity is the sum of two or more lung volumes. The sum of the inspiratory reserve volume and the tidal volume is the ________.
inspiratory capacity
If you do a normal restful exhale and then forcibly push all the remaining air out of your lungs, you are evacuating this volume.
expiratory reserve volume
Not all the air can be forced out of your respiratory system, since the larynx, trachea, and bronchi can’t completely collapse. This volume of air that can’t be exhaled is called the ________.
residual volume
Since oxygen is such an important ingredient in ATP production, it is very dangerous if oxygen levels fall in body tissues. A lack of ATP means there is not enough energy available to maintain homeostasis and cells start to die. This condition is called ______.
hypoxia
An equally dangerous situation (compared to hypoxia) is when the level of carbon dioxide rises above its set point around the body. This condition is called _____.
hypercapnia
Blood leaving the lungs is typically called “oxygenated blood” since it contains the normal set point for oxygen. That set point is _____.
100 mmHg
the ideal set point for carbon dioxide is ______.
40mmHg
When oxygenated (or arterial) blood reaches a systemic capillary bed, oxygen will diffuse out of the blood and into body cells, since those body cells contain a PO2 that is (less than or greater than) the PO2 in oxygenated blood.
Less than
Also at systemic capillaries, body cells are producing carbon dioxide through normal cellular respiration. Therefore, carbon dioxide will diffuse into the blood, since its level in these body cells is (less than or greater than) the PCO2 in the blood.
greater than
Deoxygenated (or venous) blood then returns back to the right side of the heart and then travels to the lungs. Deoxygenated blood typically contains a PO2 of _______ or less, depending on the metabolic activity of the body cells it just visited.
40mmHg
Deoxygenated blood has lost much of its oxygen, but it has gained carbon dioxide. This kind of blood typically contains a PCO2 of _____ or more, depending on the metabolic activity of the cells it visited.
46mmHg
Since deoxygenated (or venous) blood has a greater PCO2 than oxygenated (or arterial) blood, it is slightly (more acidic or more alkaline) than oxygenated blood. Basically, this question is showing you that there is an inverse relationship between PCO2 in blood and its pH. We will talk more about that in our respiratory system lectures.
more acidic
Each hemoglobin molecule contains four _____, which are the binding sites for oxygen. These regions contain one iron ion each.
heme groups
Hemoglobin exhibits a property called _______, where binding each oxygen molecule progressively increases its affinity for more oxygen.
cooperative binding
Areas of the body that are working hard and producing a lot of ATP will also have high levels of CO2. An enzyme called _______ converts that CO2 and H2O into H+ ions and HCO3- (bicarbonate) ions.
carbonic anhydrase
Therefore, areas of the body that are metabolically active will be (more acidic or more alkaline) than areas of the body that are less active, due to an abundance of H+ ions in those active tissues.
more acidic
CO2 and H+ can both ________ inhibit hemoglobin. This explains HOW hemoglobin can have a variable affinity for O2 in different body areas.
allosterically
there is a (direct or indirect) relationship between metabolic activity (measured by CO2 and H+ levels) and the amount of O2 that hemoglobin drops off at those tissues.
direct
_____, which is a temporary holding tank for urine until you can find a socially-acceptable place to release it upon the world.
Bladder
_______, which is a tube that urine passes through after it has been filtered out of the blood.
Ureter
_____ is the organ that filters waste out of your blood. This organ also helps to regulate blood pressure (total blood volume), erythrocyte production, blood pH levels, and blood solute levels. Phew! It works really hard!
Kidney
“dirty” blood flows into the filtering organ (kidney) via the structure _____
renal artery
“cleaner” blood flows out of the kidneys via the _____. This clean blood then flows back to the heart
renal vein
The final tube that urine travels through as it exits the body is called the _______.
Urethra
Nephrons are the microscopic structures in each filtering organ that collect waste from the blood and concentrate it into urine. Nephrons are mostly located in this layer of tissue within the filtering organs.
renal cortex
______ occurs at the end of the nephron, as urine is removed from the kidneys and ultimately the body.
Excretion
______ is the term for the random movement of fluid and small, dissolved solutes from the blood into the lumen of the nephron.
filtration
The selective removal of specific, toxic molecules and ions from the blood and transport into the nephron lumen is called ______.
secretion
After fluid, small solutes, and specific wastes are removed from the blood, the nephron is built to transport essential materials back into the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta so that they will remain in the body. This process is called _______.
reabsorption
This process happens in every sub-compartment of the nephron tubule, except for Bowman’s capsule.
reabsorption
This process happens exclusively at the glomerulus and creates the filtrate collected by Bowman’s capsule.
filtration
This process only happens in the proximal convoluted tubule, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.
secretion
When filtrate leaves the collecting duct, it is referred to as urine and it is destined for _______.
excretion
This signal molecule specifically modulates the amount of water reabsorbed (retained) at the collecting duct when blood pressure is low or osmolarity is high.
vasopressin
This hormone is released from stretch-sensitive endocrine cells in the heart atria. These endocrine cells release this hormone when they are stretched significantly, indicating that total blood volume and blood pressure are too high.
atrial natriuretic peptide
This hormone is released from the adrenal cortex, so it is the first steroid hormone we’ve studied in this class. It acts at the collecting duct too, but it only alters Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion. So, this hormone only directly manipulates blood osmolarity.
Aldosterone
This hormone acts at the afferent arteriole and nephron tubules, but most importantly, it results in less vasopressin release and less aldosterone release. Therefore, it is considered the antagonist to the action of those other two signal molecules.
atrial natriuretic peptide
This signal molecule is created by a chemical reaction in the blood and will stimulate more vasopressin and aldosterone release, which will help you to reabsorb and retain more water and solutes in your body when blood pressure is low.
angiotensin II
This signal molecule is called a neurohormone, because it is synthesized in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland into the blood.
Vasopressin
Because this signal molecule is a lipid, it can enter its target cells and bind to receptors in the cytosol. Once bound to its receptor, it will enter the nucleus and alter the transcription of ion channels and carrier proteins to modulate ion levels in the blood and filtrate.
Aldosterone
