Lab exam 4 Flashcards
substances from the blood plasma that have been filtered out
Urine
a nitrogenous waste product filtered out by the kidneys, it is a by-product of protein metabolism
Urea
by-product of nucleic acid metabolism
Uric acid
Definition of erythropoietin in regards to the kidneys:
When O2 is low, the kidneys will secrete erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow.
What is erythropoietin
Hormone that stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow
The functional unit of the kidneys is the _____
nephron
The top of the nephron is within the _____ of the kidney, and the tubule loop dips down into the _____. This arrangement is essential for the formation of urine.
Cortex
Medulla
blood flows from the renal arteries into this structure, then into the 1st capillary bed
afferent arteriole
blood leaving the glomerulus flows into this structure, then into the 2nd capillary bed
efferent arteriole
ball like network of capillaries in the kidney; site of filtration
glomerulus
capsule-shaped membranous structure surrounding the glomerulus of each nephron in the kidneys
bowman’s capsule
begins at the renal pole to the beginning of the loop of Henle, reabsorbs filtrate
proximal tubule
responsible for the regulation of K+, Na+, Ca2+, & pH.
distal tubule
consists of a series of tubules & ducts that physically connect nephrons to a minor calyx or the renal pelvis
collecting duct
peritubular capillaries in the kidney that dip into the medulla & then go back up to the cortex, forming hairpin loops
vasa recta
portion of the renal tubule that creates dilute urine & sets up the conditions needed to make concentrated urine
ascending limb of the loop of henle
bulk movement of fluid from the blood into the nephron
filtration
returning substances from the filtrate back to the blood
reabsorption
movement of individual ions (H+, K+) from the blood into the nephron tubule
secretion
Increases Na+ reabsorption, increases K+ secretion
aldosterone
fluid that leaves the blood in the glomerulus & enters Boman’s capsule –> contains H2O, organic molecules, ions, and NO PROTEINS!
filtrate
How much filtrate does the kidney produce and excrete daily?
180L from the blood every day. Only 1-2L is excreted from the body daily
Definition of obligatory water loss:
a minimum of 400 mL per day must be excreted to remove waste products from metabolism.
Definition of hyperkalemia & hypokalemia:
When K+ levels are too high & above normal range. Hypo is below normal range.
Definition of vasopressin (AKA antidiuretic hormone):
will increase water reabsorption
Definition of atrial natriuretic hormone:
this is the agonist to vasopressing & aldosterone –> reduces water & Na+ reabsoprtion, and increases water excretion
Which 8 organic molecules get filtered out of the blood and become part of the filtrate?
glucose
Co2
amino acids
vitamins
nitrogenous wastes
small proteins
bicarbonate
lipids
Which category of molecules in the plasma is prevented from passing through the glomerular filter?
plasma proteins –> albumins, transferrin, fibrinogen
Which major component of the blood (plasma vs. formed/cellular elements) contains substances that are completely prevented from passing thru the glomerular filter?
Formed elements
Water will move across a membrane to a location with more of these.
osmotically active solutes
If only water is being reabsorbed (e.g., leaving) from the descending limb, what happens to the concentration or osmolarity of the filtrate from the top of the limb to the bottom?
Osmolarity increases in the filtrate ~1200 mOsM
If only ions are being reabsorbed (e.g., leaving) from the ascending limb, what happens to the concentration or osmolarity of the filtrate from the bottom of the limb to the top?
Osmolarity decreases in the filtrate ~ 200mOsM
Which must move first-water from the descending limb or ions from the ascending limb? Why?
Ions must enter the blood first because water always moves by osmosis towards solutes.
If the nephron is the effect, what are the stimuli? List all 3.
↑ or ↓ total blood volume
↑ or ↓ blood osmolarity
↑ or ↓ pH (H+ concentration)
If a urine sample tested positive for protein, pH = 8.0, and tested positive for waxy casts and erythrocytes, what condition might exist?
A urinary tract infection (UTI) may exist
If a urine sample had a specific gravity of 1.040, tested positive for proteins and hyaline casts, what condition might exist?
The condition may be dehydration
The fluid that leaves the blood and moves through the functional unit of the kidney is called:
Filtrate
The kidney is the effector for this major one of the three major factors affecting blood pressure:
total blood volume
The process of fluid and suspended substances moving out of the glomerular capillaries and into the tubule is called:
filtration
the process of substances being taken from the nephron tubule and returned to the blood is called
reabsorption
urine is simply fluid removed from this major component of the blood
plasma
When someone is dehydrated bodily fluid becomes more concentrated with osmotically-active solutes. What are the sensors for detecting when the body is dehydrated or overhydrated?
Osmoreceptors
The elimination of materials from the body, for example through urine is called:
excretion
This type of signal molecule is secreted from endocrine cells into the blood
hormones
Target cells have ____ to which the signal molecule will bind
receptors
Epinephrine is this type of hormone. (chemical class)
amino-acid derived
Growth hormone is produced here.
anterior pituitary
Hormones of this chemical class can have receptors inside the cell (e.g., cytosol or nucleus)
steroid hormones
hormones produced by the adrenal cortex are all this type
steroid hormones
insulin is this type of hormone (chemical class)
peptide
the reproductive hormones (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, and other androgens) are this type. (Chem.)
steroid hormone
This hormone is secreted by the heart.
atrial natriuretic peptide
this hormone, also produced by the pancreas, has the opposite actions at target cells than insulin.
glucagon
vasopressin is secreted from this structure
posterior pituitary gland
State the 4 categories of biomolecules and their building blocks (monomers)
carbohydrates –> monosaccharides
lipids –> fatty acids
proteins –> amino acids
nucleic acids –> nucleotides
What is the storage form of each of the two classes of biomolecules that are used for fuel?
carbohydrates –> glycogen
lipids –> triglycerides
This is the process of breaking down the stored carbohydrates into its monomer
glycogenolysis
The process of breaking down stored fat into its monomer is called:
lipolysis
Which energy pathway does glucose (carbohydrate monomer) enter?
Glycolysis
What is the final product of the glycolysis pathway?
2 pyruvate, 2 NADH [nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen (H).], 2 net ATP.
What happens to this end-product (2 pyruvate/2 NADH) under anaerobic conditions?
lactic acid
In order to enter an energy pathway, fatty acids must be converted into acetyl CoA. Which pathway does this molecule enter?
citric acid cycle
What is the process of breaking down the fatty acid into acetyl CoA called?
beta-oxidation
What type of hormone (chemical class) is produced in the pancreas?
peptide hormones
What are the names of the hormones produced in the pancreas?
Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide
Which hormones are secreted from the posterior pituitary gland?
Vasopressin & oxytocin
In which chemical class do vasopressin and oxytocin hormones belong?
peptide hormones
Which gland produces aldosterone?
adrenal cortex
Into which chemical class does aldosterone fall?
steroid (that’s why it can pass the plasma membrane)
Which hormone is produced in the skin?
Vitamin D3
What type of hormone is vitamin D3?
steroid
Name the glucose transporters that are responsible for transporting glucose from the blood into liver cells:
GLUT-2 transporters
Name the glucose transporters that are responsible for transporting glucose from the blood into muscle cells:
GLUT-4 transporters
Name the glucose transporters that are responsible for transporting glucose from the blood into adipocytes cells:
GLUT-4 transporters
______ is the proposed mechanism for decreased responsiveness of the cells to insulin. This condition is where there are a decreased # of receptors or transporters
insulin resistance
_____ is the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
metabolism
_______ is the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy
catabolism
______ is the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together w/ the storage of energy; constructive metabolism
anabolism
_______ is the process of taking nutrients from the digestive system into the blood so they can be used in the body
absorption
______ is the occurence of new cases of disease/injury in a population over a specified period of time
incidence
______ is the term for higher amounts of glucose in the blood than normal
hyperglycemia
______ is the term for lower amounts of glucose in the blood than normal
hypoglycemia
____ is a disease in which the body does not control the amount of glucose in the blood & kidneys make a large amount of urine
diabetes mellitus
Change in the sperm that confer the ability to swim rapidly and fertilize the egg
Capacitation
early embryo which consists of a hollow ball of cells
blastocyst
developmental process during which pluripotent or bipotential tissues take on specific forms and functions
differentiation
Release of enzymes from the sperm head when it contacts an egg
acrosomal reaction
The ovarian structure that produces estrogen and progesterone AFTER ovulation
corpus luteum
An unborn or unhatched vertebrate, especially after attaining the basic structural plan for that species. After the 8th week of gestation for humans.
fetus
Splitting of a fertilized zygote into 2, then 4, then 8, etc. cells without an increase in embryo size.
cleavage
Vertebrate at any stage of development prior to birth or hatching. From implantation to the end of the 8th week in humans.
embryo
A cell that has two copies of each chromosome
diploid
The reproductive cells that unite to form a new individual.
gamete
The union of two gametes whereby somatic chromosome number is restored to 2n and development of a new individual starts.
fertilization
The portion of the blastocyst of a mammalian embryo that is destined to become the embryo proper, and not the placenta.
inner cell mass
The length of time that gestation takes - gestation is the carrying of young in the uterus from conception to delivery.
gestation period
A cell that has only 1 copy of each chromosome
haploid
The process of forming a gastrula (the early embryo with ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm tissue layers).
gastrulation
The process of attachment of the embryo to the maternal uterine wall
implantation
Release of a mature egg cell from its follicle in the ovary
ovulation
a fertilized egg cell
zygote
Formation and maturation of the egg cell
Oogenesis
The process of male gamete formation including formation of a spermatocytes from spermatogonia
spermatogenesis
Ligation of the fallopian tubes to prevent passage of ova from the ovaries to the uterus; serves as a method of sterilization in women.
Tubal ligation
the birth process
parturition
protective glycoprotein coat around the ovum
zona pellucida
fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm
polyspermy
surgical resection of all or part of the vas deferens usually to induce sterility in males
vasectomy
The male gonads or testes are made up of these coiled structures where sperm is produced
seminiferous tubules
This structure runs along the top of the testis. It is the location where sperm mature and are temporarily stored.
epididymis
In preparation for ejaculation, the sperm move along the vas deferens and arrive first at this location, which is just above the prostate gland.
ampulla
Secretions from this structure are added at the ampulla.
seminal vesicle
A milky solution that contains a buffer, enzymes, and nutrients is added to the semen by this gland.
prostate gland
Semen is ejaculated from the penis from the end of this tubular structure.
urethra
Eggs or ova are produced, stored, and mature in this female reproductive system organ (HINT: The female gonads).
ovaries
Ova mature inside of this bundle of cells inside the female gonad.
follicle
Maturing follicles secrete this hormone, which stimulates growth of the uterine lining (in case of pregnancy).
estrogen
When estrogen levels spike around day 12, there is a surge in secretion of ____ from the anterior pituitary.
luteinizing hormone
The ejection of the oocyte from the ovarian follicle is called ___.
Ovulation
Rapid growth of the follicle and the release of the egg occur around day ___ of the cycle
14
Cilia on the inside surface of these fingerlike projections at the end of the Fallopian tube help to draw the egg into the tube.
Fimbriae
The egg lives for ____ (range with units), and if not fertilized will be removed along with the uterine lining during menstruation.
12-24 hours
The technical term for the “jelly coat” discussed in the video is:
zona pellucida
The first step in a sperm’s attempt to fertilize an egg is the release of ___ from the tip of the head onto the “jelly coat” to digest the outer layer.
acrosomal enzymes
Through polymerization of actin, an ___ is formed and extends toward the vitelline envelope.
acrosomal process
For fertilization to take place, the egg’s receptors must bind specifically to this protein on the sperm’s acrosomal process
Bindin
After the plasma membranes of the sperm and the egg fuse, ____ diffuses into the egg.
Na+
Through a series of chemical reactions, other sperm are prevented from fertilizing the egg. These steps are blocks to ____.
polyspermy
Once all steps are taken to prevent more than one sperm from fertilizing the egg, the egg creates a ____ in order to draw the sperm’s nucleus into the egg.
fertilization cone
The fertilized egg (egg + DNA from sperm) is diploid and is called a/an:
zygote
The production of oocytes in the ovary is called:
Oogenesis
Prior to birth, the ovaries produce this number of oocytes.
~2 million
Fertilization of the egg occurs here in the Fallopian tube.
ampulla
How many sperm are ejected during ejaculation?
~0.5 billion
Following ejaculation into the vagina, a few thousand sperm can reach the egg within this amount of time.
10-15 minutes
The zygote undergoes mitotic divisions called:
cleavage
The solid ball of cells that enters the uterine cavity is called a/an?
morula
After two days in the uterine cavity, the growing organism becomes a hollow ball of cells called a/an:
blastocyst
The technical term for the outer layer of cells that become the placenta and embryonic membranes is:
trophoblast
The inner cell mass is called the ____, which reflects what it grows into.
embryoblast
The process of the blastocyst imbedding itself in the uterine was is called:
implantation
Implantation begins about ____ days after fertilization.
seven
Pregnancy is initiated when this process takes place.
implantation
The technical term for the differentiation and formation of the three germ layers is called:
gastrulation
List the three germ layers
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
This germ layer will become the skin and structures of the nervous system.
ectoderm
This germ layer will become the bone, muscle, and connective tissues.
mesoderm
This germ layer will become the linings of the respiratory and digestive tracts and the liver and pancreas.
endoderm
The nephron performs three major functions. They are _____, _____, _____
Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion
_____ is the bulk movement of fluid from the blood into the nephron
filtration
_____ is the returning of substances from the filtrate back into the blood
Reabsorption
_____ is the movement of individual ions (H+ and K+) from the blood back into the nephron tubule
secretion
where does filtration take place
in the glomerulus
What are the three filtration layers
- fenestrations of the capillary endothelium (filter based on size)
- Basal Lamina/basement membrane (charge)
- pedicels of the podocytes (size)
the fluid that leaves the blood in the glomerulus and enters bowman’s capsule is called _____
filtrate
what are the organic molecules that get filtered out of the blood and become part of the filtrate
amino acids
glucose
lipids
nitrogenous wastes
CO2
small proteins
HCO3 (bicarbonate) pH buffer
What category in the plasma is prevented from getting into the filtrate? What part of the filter prevents this from passing
plasma proteins. They are repelled by the negatively charged basement membrane
_____ are prevented from passing into the filtrate because they are too big
formed elements
_____ serves as a funnel that directs the filtrate into the first segment of the nephron tubule.
Bowmans capsule
the first segment of the nephron tubule is called _____
the proximal convoluted tubule or just proximal tubule
_____ takes place in the proximal tubule and everywhere else in the nephron
reabsorption
the kidney produce _____ liters of filtrate every day. but only _____-_____ liters is excreted from the body every day
180 L are produced, only about 1-2 are excreted
a minimum of _____ ml of filtrate must be excreted to remove waste products from metabolism. this is called obligatory water loss
140 ml/day
most of the reabsorption takes place in the _____. About _____% of the filtrate is reabsorbed here.
Proximal tubule, 65%
the proximal tubule is the only place where _____ can be reabsorbed
organic molecules (small proteins, glucose, and amino acids)
the three hormones that effect water and ion balance in the distal nephron are
aldosterone, vasopressin, and atrial natriuretic peptide
the hormone _____ increases water reabsorption
vasopressin
the hormone _____ increases sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion
aldosterone
the hormone _____ is an antagonist to the other hormones in the distal nephron. it reduces water and salt reabsorption and increases water excretion
atrial natriuretic peptide
_____ is the analysis of the content of urine
urinalysis
What does the urine reagent test strip test for
- glucose
- proteins
- ketones
- pH
- Blood (erythrocytes)
- leukocytes
- Bilirubin
What does the microscope analysis of the urine lab look for
blood cells, crystals, casts, and bacteria/parasites
urine is normally yellow because of a by product called _____ (which is due to the breakdown of erythrocytes)
Bilirubin
If the urine appears reddish there may be _____ or _____ present
blood or myoglobin
If the urine appears cloudy there may be an _____
infection
True or false: certain foods or medications can change the appearance of the urine. This is why follow us testing is important rather than just visual analysis of a urine sample
true
The dip-sticks or _____ provide a quick test for substances that should not be present in the urine
chemical reagent test strips
the urine must first be spun in a _____ to separate the liqiod from the solid substances (gross)
centrifuge
the urine when spun in a centrifuge makes up two layers: the solid particles on the bottom and the liquid or _____ on the top. This liquid can be used to rest the specific gravity of the urine
supernatant
the primary fuels for making ATP are _____ and _____
glucose and fatty acids
protein can be catabolized into amino acids, which is then converted into glucose in the liver. this process is called ____ (going from a monomer to a carbohydrate)
gluconeogenesis
In the increase blood glucose loop what is the sensor and integrating center
Pancreatic B cells
In the decrease blood glucose loop what is the sensor and integrating center
Pancreatic A cells
In the decrease blood glucose loop what is the efferent pathway
Increase release of glucagon into blood.
In the increase blood glucose loop what is the efferent pathway
increase release of insulin
In the increase blood glucose loop what is the effector
Hepatocytes with insulin receptors
In the decrease blood glucose loop what is the effector
Hepatocytes with glucagon receptors
In the increase blood glucose loop what is the effectors actions
- decrease glucose concentration
- Increase transport of glucose into hepatocytes wia GLUT - 2 transporters
- Glucose is converted into glycogen for storage (glycogenesis)
In the decrease blood glucose loop what is the effectors actions
- increase in glycogenolysis
- increase concentration of glucose inside hepatocytes
- increase release of glucose to blood through GLUT 2 Transporters
What is protein in the urine called
Proteinuria
What is blood in the urine called
Hematuria
What is glucose in the urine called
Glycosuria
What is crystals in the urine called
Crystalluria
