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phys > Lab exam 4 > Flashcards

Lab exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

substances from the blood plasma that have been filtered out

A

Urine

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2
Q

a nitrogenous waste product filtered out by the kidneys, it is a by-product of protein metabolism

A

Urea

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3
Q

by-product of nucleic acid metabolism

A

Uric acid

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4
Q

Definition of erythropoietin in regards to the kidneys:

A

When O2 is low, the kidneys will secrete erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow.

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5
Q

What is erythropoietin

A

Hormone that stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow

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6
Q

The functional unit of the kidneys is the _____

A

nephron

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7
Q

The top of the nephron is within the _____ of the kidney, and the tubule loop dips down into the _____. This arrangement is essential for the formation of urine.

A

Cortex
Medulla

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8
Q

blood flows from the renal arteries into this structure, then into the 1st capillary bed

A

afferent arteriole

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9
Q

blood leaving the glomerulus flows into this structure, then into the 2nd capillary bed

A

efferent arteriole

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10
Q

ball like network of capillaries in the kidney; site of filtration

A

glomerulus

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11
Q

capsule-shaped membranous structure surrounding the glomerulus of each nephron in the kidneys

A

bowman’s capsule

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12
Q

begins at the renal pole to the beginning of the loop of Henle, reabsorbs filtrate

A

proximal tubule

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13
Q

responsible for the regulation of K+, Na+, Ca2+, & pH.

A

distal tubule

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14
Q

consists of a series of tubules & ducts that physically connect nephrons to a minor calyx or the renal pelvis

A

collecting duct

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15
Q

peritubular capillaries in the kidney that dip into the medulla & then go back up to the cortex, forming hairpin loops

A

vasa recta

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16
Q

portion of the renal tubule that creates dilute urine & sets up the conditions needed to make concentrated urine

A

ascending limb of the loop of henle

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17
Q

bulk movement of fluid from the blood into the nephron

A

filtration

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18
Q

returning substances from the filtrate back to the blood

A

reabsorption

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19
Q

movement of individual ions (H+, K+) from the blood into the nephron tubule

A

secretion

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20
Q

Increases Na+ reabsorption, increases K+ secretion

A

aldosterone

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21
Q

fluid that leaves the blood in the glomerulus & enters Boman’s capsule –> contains H2O, organic molecules, ions, and NO PROTEINS!

A

filtrate

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22
Q

How much filtrate does the kidney produce and excrete daily?

A

180L from the blood every day. Only 1-2L is excreted from the body daily

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23
Q

Definition of obligatory water loss:

A

a minimum of 400 mL per day must be excreted to remove waste products from metabolism.

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24
Q

Definition of hyperkalemia & hypokalemia:

A

When K+ levels are too high & above normal range. Hypo is below normal range.

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25
Q

Definition of vasopressin (AKA antidiuretic hormone):

A

will increase water reabsorption

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26
Q

Definition of atrial natriuretic hormone:

A

this is the agonist to vasopressing & aldosterone –> reduces water & Na+ reabsoprtion, and increases water excretion

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27
Q

Which 8 organic molecules get filtered out of the blood and become part of the filtrate?

A

glucose
Co2
amino acids
vitamins
nitrogenous wastes
small proteins
bicarbonate
lipids

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28
Q

Which category of molecules in the plasma is prevented from passing through the glomerular filter?

A

plasma proteins –> albumins, transferrin, fibrinogen

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29
Q

Which major component of the blood (plasma vs. formed/cellular elements) contains substances that are completely prevented from passing thru the glomerular filter?

A

Formed elements

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30
Q

Water will move across a membrane to a location with more of these.

A

osmotically active solutes

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31
Q

If only water is being reabsorbed (e.g., leaving) from the descending limb, what happens to the concentration or osmolarity of the filtrate from the top of the limb to the bottom?

A

Osmolarity increases in the filtrate ~1200 mOsM

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32
Q

If only ions are being reabsorbed (e.g., leaving) from the ascending limb, what happens to the concentration or osmolarity of the filtrate from the bottom of the limb to the top?

A

Osmolarity decreases in the filtrate ~ 200mOsM

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33
Q

Which must move first-water from the descending limb or ions from the ascending limb? Why?

A

Ions must enter the blood first because water always moves by osmosis towards solutes.

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34
Q

If the nephron is the effect, what are the stimuli? List all 3.

A

↑ or ↓ total blood volume
↑ or ↓ blood osmolarity
↑ or ↓ pH (H+ concentration)

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35
Q

If a urine sample tested positive for protein, pH = 8.0, and tested positive for waxy casts and erythrocytes, what condition might exist?

A

A urinary tract infection (UTI) may exist

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36
Q

If a urine sample had a specific gravity of 1.040, tested positive for proteins and hyaline casts, what condition might exist?

A

The condition may be dehydration

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37
Q

The fluid that leaves the blood and moves through the functional unit of the kidney is called:

A

Filtrate

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38
Q

The kidney is the effector for this major one of the three major factors affecting blood pressure:

A

total blood volume

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39
Q

The process of fluid and suspended substances moving out of the glomerular capillaries and into the tubule is called:

A

filtration

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40
Q

the process of substances being taken from the nephron tubule and returned to the blood is called

A

reabsorption

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41
Q

urine is simply fluid removed from this major component of the blood

A

plasma

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42
Q

When someone is dehydrated bodily fluid becomes more concentrated with osmotically-active solutes. What are the sensors for detecting when the body is dehydrated or overhydrated?

A

Osmoreceptors

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43
Q

The elimination of materials from the body, for example through urine is called:

A

excretion

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44
Q

This type of signal molecule is secreted from endocrine cells into the blood

A

hormones

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45
Q

Target cells have ____ to which the signal molecule will bind

A

receptors

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46
Q

Epinephrine is this type of hormone. (chemical class)

A

amino-acid derived

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47
Q

Growth hormone is produced here.

A

anterior pituitary

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48
Q

Hormones of this chemical class can have receptors inside the cell (e.g., cytosol or nucleus)

A

steroid hormones

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49
Q

hormones produced by the adrenal cortex are all this type

A

steroid hormones

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50
Q

insulin is this type of hormone (chemical class)

A

peptide

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51
Q

the reproductive hormones (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, and other androgens) are this type. (Chem.)

A

steroid hormone

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52
Q

This hormone is secreted by the heart.

A

atrial natriuretic peptide

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53
Q

this hormone, also produced by the pancreas, has the opposite actions at target cells than insulin.

A

glucagon

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54
Q

vasopressin is secreted from this structure

A

posterior pituitary gland

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55
Q

State the 4 categories of biomolecules and their building blocks (monomers)

A

carbohydrates –> monosaccharides
lipids –> fatty acids
proteins –> amino acids
nucleic acids –> nucleotides

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56
Q

What is the storage form of each of the two classes of biomolecules that are used for fuel?

A

carbohydrates –> glycogen
lipids –> triglycerides

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57
Q

This is the process of breaking down the stored carbohydrates into its monomer

A

glycogenolysis

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58
Q

The process of breaking down stored fat into its monomer is called:

A

lipolysis

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59
Q

Which energy pathway does glucose (carbohydrate monomer) enter?

A

Glycolysis

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60
Q

What is the final product of the glycolysis pathway?

A

2 pyruvate, 2 NADH [nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen (H).], 2 net ATP.

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61
Q

What happens to this end-product (2 pyruvate/2 NADH) under anaerobic conditions?

A

lactic acid

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62
Q

In order to enter an energy pathway, fatty acids must be converted into acetyl CoA. Which pathway does this molecule enter?

A

citric acid cycle

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63
Q

What is the process of breaking down the fatty acid into acetyl CoA called?

A

beta-oxidation

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64
Q

What type of hormone (chemical class) is produced in the pancreas?

A

peptide hormones

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65
Q

What are the names of the hormones produced in the pancreas?

A

Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide

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66
Q

Which hormones are secreted from the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Vasopressin & oxytocin

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67
Q

In which chemical class do vasopressin and oxytocin hormones belong?

A

peptide hormones

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68
Q

Which gland produces aldosterone?

A

adrenal cortex

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69
Q

Into which chemical class does aldosterone fall?

A

steroid (that’s why it can pass the plasma membrane)

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70
Q

Which hormone is produced in the skin?

A

Vitamin D3

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71
Q

What type of hormone is vitamin D3?

A

steroid

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72
Q

Name the glucose transporters that are responsible for transporting glucose from the blood into liver cells:

A

GLUT-2 transporters

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73
Q

Name the glucose transporters that are responsible for transporting glucose from the blood into muscle cells:

A

GLUT-4 transporters

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74
Q

Name the glucose transporters that are responsible for transporting glucose from the blood into adipocytes cells:

A

GLUT-4 transporters

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75
Q

______ is the proposed mechanism for decreased responsiveness of the cells to insulin. This condition is where there are a decreased # of receptors or transporters

A

insulin resistance

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76
Q

_____ is the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life

A

metabolism

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77
Q

_______ is the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy

A

catabolism

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78
Q

______ is the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together w/ the storage of energy; constructive metabolism

A

anabolism

79
Q

_______ is the process of taking nutrients from the digestive system into the blood so they can be used in the body

A

absorption

80
Q

______ is the occurence of new cases of disease/injury in a population over a specified period of time

A

incidence

81
Q

______ is the term for higher amounts of glucose in the blood than normal

A

hyperglycemia

82
Q

______ is the term for lower amounts of glucose in the blood than normal

A

hypoglycemia

83
Q

____ is a disease in which the body does not control the amount of glucose in the blood & kidneys make a large amount of urine

A

diabetes mellitus

84
Q

Change in the sperm that confer the ability to swim rapidly and fertilize the egg

A

Capacitation

85
Q

early embryo which consists of a hollow ball of cells

A

blastocyst

86
Q

developmental process during which pluripotent or bipotential tissues take on specific forms and functions

A

differentiation

87
Q

Release of enzymes from the sperm head when it contacts an egg

A

acrosomal reaction

88
Q

The ovarian structure that produces estrogen and progesterone AFTER ovulation

A

corpus luteum

89
Q

An unborn or unhatched vertebrate, especially after attaining the basic structural plan for that species. After the 8th week of gestation for humans.

A

fetus

90
Q

Splitting of a fertilized zygote into 2, then 4, then 8, etc. cells without an increase in embryo size.

A

cleavage

91
Q

Vertebrate at any stage of development prior to birth or hatching. From implantation to the end of the 8th week in humans.

A

embryo

92
Q

A cell that has two copies of each chromosome

A

diploid

93
Q

The reproductive cells that unite to form a new individual.

A

gamete

94
Q

The union of two gametes whereby somatic chromosome number is restored to 2n and development of a new individual starts.

A

fertilization

95
Q

The portion of the blastocyst of a mammalian embryo that is destined to become the embryo proper, and not the placenta.

A

inner cell mass

96
Q

The length of time that gestation takes - gestation is the carrying of young in the uterus from conception to delivery.

A

gestation period

97
Q

A cell that has only 1 copy of each chromosome

A

haploid

98
Q

The process of forming a gastrula (the early embryo with ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm tissue layers).

A

gastrulation

99
Q

The process of attachment of the embryo to the maternal uterine wall

A

implantation

100
Q

Release of a mature egg cell from its follicle in the ovary

A

ovulation

101
Q

a fertilized egg cell

A

zygote

102
Q

Formation and maturation of the egg cell

A

Oogenesis

103
Q

The process of male gamete formation including formation of a spermatocytes from spermatogonia

A

spermatogenesis

104
Q

Ligation of the fallopian tubes to prevent passage of ova from the ovaries to the uterus; serves as a method of sterilization in women.

A

Tubal ligation

105
Q

the birth process

A

parturition

106
Q

protective glycoprotein coat around the ovum

A

zona pellucida

107
Q

fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm

A

polyspermy

108
Q

surgical resection of all or part of the vas deferens usually to induce sterility in males

A

vasectomy

109
Q

The male gonads or testes are made up of these coiled structures where sperm is produced

A

seminiferous tubules

110
Q

This structure runs along the top of the testis. It is the location where sperm mature and are temporarily stored.

A

epididymis

111
Q

In preparation for ejaculation, the sperm move along the vas deferens and arrive first at this location, which is just above the prostate gland.

A

ampulla

112
Q

Secretions from this structure are added at the ampulla.

A

seminal vesicle

113
Q

A milky solution that contains a buffer, enzymes, and nutrients is added to the semen by this gland.

A

prostate gland

114
Q

Semen is ejaculated from the penis from the end of this tubular structure.

A

urethra

115
Q

Eggs or ova are produced, stored, and mature in this female reproductive system organ (HINT: The female gonads).

A

ovaries

116
Q

Ova mature inside of this bundle of cells inside the female gonad.

A

follicle

117
Q

Maturing follicles secrete this hormone, which stimulates growth of the uterine lining (in case of pregnancy).

A

estrogen

118
Q

When estrogen levels spike around day 12, there is a surge in secretion of ____ from the anterior pituitary.

A

luteinizing hormone

119
Q

The ejection of the oocyte from the ovarian follicle is called ___.

A

Ovulation

120
Q

Rapid growth of the follicle and the release of the egg occur around day ___ of the cycle

A

14

121
Q

Cilia on the inside surface of these fingerlike projections at the end of the Fallopian tube help to draw the egg into the tube.

A

Fimbriae

122
Q

The egg lives for ____ (range with units), and if not fertilized will be removed along with the uterine lining during menstruation.

A

12-24 hours

123
Q

The technical term for the “jelly coat” discussed in the video is:

A

zona pellucida

124
Q

The first step in a sperm’s attempt to fertilize an egg is the release of ___ from the tip of the head onto the “jelly coat” to digest the outer layer.

A

acrosomal enzymes

125
Q

Through polymerization of actin, an ___ is formed and extends toward the vitelline envelope.

A

acrosomal process

126
Q

For fertilization to take place, the egg’s receptors must bind specifically to this protein on the sperm’s acrosomal process

A

Bindin

127
Q

After the plasma membranes of the sperm and the egg fuse, ____ diffuses into the egg.

A

Na+

128
Q

Through a series of chemical reactions, other sperm are prevented from fertilizing the egg. These steps are blocks to ____.

A

polyspermy

129
Q

Once all steps are taken to prevent more than one sperm from fertilizing the egg, the egg creates a ____ in order to draw the sperm’s nucleus into the egg.

A

fertilization cone

130
Q

The fertilized egg (egg + DNA from sperm) is diploid and is called a/an:

A

zygote

131
Q

The production of oocytes in the ovary is called:

A

Oogenesis

132
Q

Prior to birth, the ovaries produce this number of oocytes.

A

~2 million

133
Q

Fertilization of the egg occurs here in the Fallopian tube.

A

ampulla

134
Q

How many sperm are ejected during ejaculation?

A

~0.5 billion

135
Q

Following ejaculation into the vagina, a few thousand sperm can reach the egg within this amount of time.

A

10-15 minutes

136
Q

The zygote undergoes mitotic divisions called:

A

cleavage

137
Q

The solid ball of cells that enters the uterine cavity is called a/an?

A

morula

138
Q

After two days in the uterine cavity, the growing organism becomes a hollow ball of cells called a/an:

A

blastocyst

139
Q

The technical term for the outer layer of cells that become the placenta and embryonic membranes is:

A

trophoblast

140
Q

The inner cell mass is called the ____, which reflects what it grows into.

A

embryoblast

141
Q

The process of the blastocyst imbedding itself in the uterine was is called:

A

implantation

142
Q

Implantation begins about ____ days after fertilization.

A

seven

143
Q

Pregnancy is initiated when this process takes place.

A

implantation

144
Q

The technical term for the differentiation and formation of the three germ layers is called:

A

gastrulation

145
Q

List the three germ layers

A

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

146
Q

This germ layer will become the skin and structures of the nervous system.

A

ectoderm

147
Q

This germ layer will become the bone, muscle, and connective tissues.

A

mesoderm

148
Q

This germ layer will become the linings of the respiratory and digestive tracts and the liver and pancreas.

A

endoderm

149
Q

The nephron performs three major functions. They are _____, _____, _____

A

Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion

150
Q

_____ is the bulk movement of fluid from the blood into the nephron

A

filtration

151
Q

_____ is the returning of substances from the filtrate back into the blood

A

Reabsorption

152
Q

_____ is the movement of individual ions (H+ and K+) from the blood back into the nephron tubule

A

secretion

153
Q

where does filtration take place

A

in the glomerulus

154
Q

What are the three filtration layers

A
  1. fenestrations of the capillary endothelium (filter based on size)
  2. Basal Lamina/basement membrane (charge)
  3. pedicels of the podocytes (size)
155
Q

the fluid that leaves the blood in the glomerulus and enters bowman’s capsule is called _____

A

filtrate

156
Q

what are the organic molecules that get filtered out of the blood and become part of the filtrate

A

amino acids
glucose
lipids
nitrogenous wastes
CO2
small proteins
HCO3 (bicarbonate) pH buffer

157
Q

What category in the plasma is prevented from getting into the filtrate? What part of the filter prevents this from passing

A

plasma proteins. They are repelled by the negatively charged basement membrane

158
Q

_____ are prevented from passing into the filtrate because they are too big

A

formed elements

159
Q

_____ serves as a funnel that directs the filtrate into the first segment of the nephron tubule.

A

Bowmans capsule

160
Q

the first segment of the nephron tubule is called _____

A

the proximal convoluted tubule or just proximal tubule

161
Q

_____ takes place in the proximal tubule and everywhere else in the nephron

A

reabsorption

162
Q

the kidney produce _____ liters of filtrate every day. but only _____-_____ liters is excreted from the body every day

A

180 L are produced, only about 1-2 are excreted

163
Q

a minimum of _____ ml of filtrate must be excreted to remove waste products from metabolism. this is called obligatory water loss

A

140 ml/day

164
Q

most of the reabsorption takes place in the _____. About _____% of the filtrate is reabsorbed here.

A

Proximal tubule, 65%

165
Q

the proximal tubule is the only place where _____ can be reabsorbed

A

organic molecules (small proteins, glucose, and amino acids)

166
Q

the three hormones that effect water and ion balance in the distal nephron are

A

aldosterone, vasopressin, and atrial natriuretic peptide

167
Q

the hormone _____ increases water reabsorption

A

vasopressin

168
Q

the hormone _____ increases sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion

A

aldosterone

169
Q

the hormone _____ is an antagonist to the other hormones in the distal nephron. it reduces water and salt reabsorption and increases water excretion

A

atrial natriuretic peptide

170
Q

_____ is the analysis of the content of urine

A

urinalysis

171
Q

What does the urine reagent test strip test for

A
  1. glucose
  2. proteins
  3. ketones
  4. pH
  5. Blood (erythrocytes)
  6. leukocytes
  7. Bilirubin
172
Q

What does the microscope analysis of the urine lab look for

A

blood cells, crystals, casts, and bacteria/parasites

173
Q

urine is normally yellow because of a by product called _____ (which is due to the breakdown of erythrocytes)

A

Bilirubin

174
Q

If the urine appears reddish there may be _____ or _____ present

A

blood or myoglobin

175
Q

If the urine appears cloudy there may be an _____

A

infection

176
Q

True or false: certain foods or medications can change the appearance of the urine. This is why follow us testing is important rather than just visual analysis of a urine sample

A

true

177
Q

The dip-sticks or _____ provide a quick test for substances that should not be present in the urine

A

chemical reagent test strips

178
Q

the urine must first be spun in a _____ to separate the liqiod from the solid substances (gross)

A

centrifuge

179
Q

the urine when spun in a centrifuge makes up two layers: the solid particles on the bottom and the liquid or _____ on the top. This liquid can be used to rest the specific gravity of the urine

A

supernatant

180
Q

the primary fuels for making ATP are _____ and _____

A

glucose and fatty acids

181
Q

protein can be catabolized into amino acids, which is then converted into glucose in the liver. this process is called ____ (going from a monomer to a carbohydrate)

A

gluconeogenesis

182
Q

In the increase blood glucose loop what is the sensor and integrating center

A

Pancreatic B cells

183
Q

In the decrease blood glucose loop what is the sensor and integrating center

A

Pancreatic A cells

184
Q

In the decrease blood glucose loop what is the efferent pathway

A

Increase release of glucagon into blood.

185
Q

In the increase blood glucose loop what is the efferent pathway

A

increase release of insulin

186
Q

In the increase blood glucose loop what is the effector

A

Hepatocytes with insulin receptors

187
Q

In the decrease blood glucose loop what is the effector

A

Hepatocytes with glucagon receptors

188
Q

In the increase blood glucose loop what is the effectors actions

A
  1. decrease glucose concentration
  2. Increase transport of glucose into hepatocytes wia GLUT - 2 transporters
  3. Glucose is converted into glycogen for storage (glycogenesis)
189
Q

In the decrease blood glucose loop what is the effectors actions

A
  1. increase in glycogenolysis
  2. increase concentration of glucose inside hepatocytes
  3. increase release of glucose to blood through GLUT 2 Transporters
190
Q

What is protein in the urine called

A

Proteinuria

191
Q

What is blood in the urine called

A

Hematuria

192
Q

What is glucose in the urine called

A

Glycosuria

193
Q

What is crystals in the urine called

A

Crystalluria

phys (6 decks)

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