Unit 4 Lecture Exam Flashcards
Cardiac muscle cells are held together end-to-end at complex junctions called ________ that consist of interdigitated membranes.
Intercalated disks
Within the junctions (intercalated disks) the cells are physically tethered by these strong connections that allow force created in one cell to be transferred to the adjacent cell.
Desmosomes
______ a component of Intercalated disks allow cardiac muscle cells to be electronically connected. These direct conduits between myocardial cells allow waves of depolarization to pass rapidly between cells causing them to contract almost simultaneously.
Gap junctions
These specific myocardial cells make up about 99% of the heart, are striated muscle, and have thick and thin filaments organized into sarcomeres
Contractile cells
These specific myocardial cells make up about 1% of the heart and mostly lack thick and thin filaments. Rather they are specialized for passing electrical signals around the heart.
Conducting cells (autorhythmic)
This general category of vessel directly returns blood back to the heart atria.
Veins
This general category of vessels directly receives blood from the heart ventricles
Arteries
These blood vessels are the primary site of vasoconstriction and vasodilation because they contain large amounts of smooth muscle
Arterioles
These blood vessel are where gas, nutrient, and waste exchange occurs in the body
Capillaries
These blood vessels receive deoxygenated blood from the capillaries
Venules
The circuit of the cardiovascular system that conducts deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart is called the _____
Pulmonary circuit
The circuit of the cardiovascular system that conducts oxygenated blood from the heart to body tissues and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart is called the
Systemic circuit
_____ defines the amount of blood that is pumped by one ventricle during a single contraction
Stroke volume
The total volume of blood pumped by one ventricle during a given period of time - typically one minuet - is called the _____
Cardiac output
This concept explains that the heart must pump all the blood that returns to it and the force of heart contraction is determined by the volume of blood returning to it at any given moment
Frank starling law
_____ is a term that describes all the electrical and physical events that happen in the heart during one contraction-relaxation cycle
Cardiac cycle
If we count the number of contraction-relaxation cycles that happen in one minute that defines a persons _____
Heart rate
The volume of blood entering the heart form the Venus circulation at any given moment is called _____
Venous return
_____ defines the volume of blood left in a ventricle at the end of its contraction phase
End-systolic volume
_____ defines the maximum amount of blood that a ventricle can hold when it is fully relaxed
End-diastolic volume
_____ describes the time when a heart chamber (atria or ventricles) are contracting and pumping blood
Systole
_____ describes the time when a heart chamber (atria or ventricles) are relaxing and filling with blood
Diastole
Which ion are funny If channels more permeable too?
Na+ ions (they are less permeable to K+ ions)
At the peak of the depolarization of a conducting cell, the funny If channels close and _____ channels open, resulting in the repolarization phase.
Slow K+ channels
When contractile cells receive a depolarization fro the adjacent conducting or contractile cell, they immediately depolarize through the opening of _____ channels.
Voltage gated Na+ channels
When the membrane potential reaches +20 mV channels for this ion open and close quickly, causing a very brief repolarization. For contractile cells action potential
K+ channels
What channels are open during the pacemaker potential segment of a conducting cell action potential
If (funny) channels
In the SA node the conduction action potential, what channel is open during the depolarization phase
Voltage gated Ca2+ channels
In the SA node conducting action potential the part of the action potential before the threshold is the _____. Is gets a special name to denote how it automatically climbs toward the threshold. What is that special name
Pacemaker potential
What is the resting membrane potential if contracting cells action potential
-90 mV
When contractile cells receive a depolarization from an adjacent conducting or contractile cell they immediately depolarize - Through the opening of these channels.
Voltage gated Na+ channels
When the membrane potential reaches +20mV stage in the contractile cells action potential this ion channel is open very quickly and closes very quickly. Causing a brief repolarization
K+ channel (creating the nubbin of the action potential)
The plateau of the contractile cells action potential is due to _____ channels opening. This ion moving into the cell leads to power strokes in the contractile less and sarcomere shortening.
Voltage gated Ca2+ channels
After the voltage gated Ca2+ channels close (in the contractile cell action potential) the cell will rapidly repolarize. This change in membrane potential is due to the opening of what kind of channels?
Slow K+ channels
Stats about oxygenated blood
- Higher O2 pressure and lower CO2 pressure.
- blood is coming back from the pulmonary circuit after getting oxygenated
-blood enters the left side of the heart through left pulmonary veins - oxygenated blood then is pumped out of the heart from the left ventricle to all body cells via the systemic circuit.
Stats about deoxygenated blood
- Lower O2 pressure higher CO2 pressure
- O2 is a nutrient for ATP production, so it gets deflected as the blood runs through the body
- CO2 is a waste product made in ATP
- deoxygenated blood is returning from the systemic circuit
- the right side of the heart receives the deoxygenated blood and then pumps the blood to the lungs via pulmonary circuit
What is the frank starling law
The heart must pump all blood that returns to it and it’s force of contraction is partially determined by how much blood returns to it (venous return stretching the sarcomeres)
The pulmonary circuit
From the right side of the heart to the lungs
Blood picks up O2 and drops off CO2
Returns to the left side of the heart
The systemic circuit
From the left side of the heart to all body cells
Blood drops off O2 and picks up CO2 and other metabolic wastes
Also distributes hormones, stored nutrients (glucose, triglycerides, etc) immune cells, and immunoglobulins around the body
Returns to the right side of the heart
What are the three portal systems in the body and what does that mean
Means that there are two capillaries that blood flows through in one circuit
1. Digestive system/liver
2. Kidneys
3. Brain
What are the components of the cellular matrix of blood
Red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes)
What is in the liquid matrix of the blood
The liquid matrix is plasma
Contains: nutrients for atp, glucose, lipids, signal molecules (hormones/neurohormones) cytokines, immunoglobulins (antibodies)
What are cytokines
Signal molecules any nucleated cell can make. They are made on demand and released into the blood (immune ones sometimes)
Why are arteries the thickest?
They are closest to the left ventricle and need to handle the most pressure. They need to be strong and large in diameter. They have fibrous tissue that gives strength to the artery. They also have elastic tissue that gives stretchiness to the artery.
Stats about the makeup of arterioles
They have smooth muscle cells surrounding them allowing them to change in diameter. Smooth muscle cells in arterioles are the effector in total peripheral resistance.
The smallest and most delicate, very leaky, doe exchange of nutrients and waste pickup
Capillaries
What is the standard unit for liquid pressure (BP) and gas pressure
MmHg (millimeters of mercury)
What is needed for fluid to flow from one place to another
A pressure gradient, if there is no pressure gradient then there will be no flow in the system. The difference in pressure between two points on a vessel determines the flow rate (Volume per unit time)
_____ prevent back flow is pressure builds up on one end
One way valves
What vessels in the cardiac system have the most pressure
The pressure is at the highest closest to the left ventricle. Highest in the arteries and then lowest in the veins.
What are the two body pumps that help get blood back to the heart
The respiratory pump and the muscle pump
- the respiratory pump is pressure fluctuations during ventilation that push blood to the heart.
- the muscle pump is skeletal muscles that squeeze on veins with 1 way valves to aid in venous return.
The way we measure blood pressure is called _____. Also known as the pressure against the walls of a closed container. The force is exerted on the walls of the container by the fluid inside
Hydrostatic pressure
What do we use to measure blood pressure
And inflatable cuff and a sphygmomanometer
_____ is a blood pressure measurement that can be measured within the artery. It’s more invasive and is typically only done in surgery or extreme cases
Hydraulic blood pressure
What are the three factors that directly effect blood pressure
Total peripheral resistance
Cardiac output
Total blood volume
Total blood volume facts card
- the total volume in most adults is about 5L
- direct relationship with blood pressure. Increase in blood volume = increase in BP, decrease = decrease in BP.
- regulated very slowly by the urinary system. The effectors are the kidneys
- dehydration or water intoxication can change the volume of blood
What is the effector for total blood volume
Kidneys, in the urinary system
Total peripheral resistance facts card
- total peripheral resistance is: how hard your heart has to work to push blood through your blood vessels, also defined as the opposing force the heart must overcome to pump blood around the body.
- friction that your heart has to pump against. Blood cells bouncing off one another and off of the vessel walls.
- vasoconstriction = increase in per resistance (direct relationship) = increase in BP
- vasodilation = decrease in per. Resistance (inverse relationship) = decrease in BP
- smooth muscle cells on the arterioles are the effector for both
What is the effector for stroke volume
Contracting cells at the left ventricle
What is the effector for heart rate
Conducting cells at the sinoartial node
What are the three sub factors that effect total peripheral resistance
Vessel diameter, blood viscosity, and vessel length
These blood vessels have the smallest diameter. They are also the site of exchange for nutrients, wastes, and signal molecules between the blood and body tissues since they are composed only of a single layer of loosely connected endothelial cells
Capillaries
These blood vessels deliver blood to specific tissues and the smooth muscle cells embedded in their walls give them variable resistance. These characteristics make them ideal for fine tuning blood flow to meet the metabolic demands of different tissues around the body
Arterioles
These blood vessels collect blood just after is has had a chance to exchange nutrients, wastes, and signal molecules with body tissues and start its return journey to the heart
Venules
These blood vessels have the widest diameters and therefore hold more than help of the blood in our bodies. They also typically run close to the surface of our skin, so they must have both fibrous tissue for strength and elastic tissue for flexibility
Veins
These blood vessels are structurally reinforced with elastic and fibrous tissue, since they must withstand the highest blood pressures
Arteries
When considering blood pressure two values are always recorded. The _____ pressure represents the maximum pressure that occurs in an artery near the heart and follows ventricular contraction
Systolic
The _____ pressure represents the minimum pressure in an artery near the heart and coincides with ventricular relaxation
Diastolic
There are three main factors that determine your blood pressure at any given moment. One factor referred to as _____ focuses in how hard your heart is working at that moment. This factor combines the number of beats per minute and the volume of blood pumped per ventricular contraction, both of which are controlled by the autonomic efferent pathways
Cardiac output
Another key factor in determining blood pressure is the water content of the blood plasma. This factor is referred to as _____ and is regulated primarily by the kidneys with guidance from both autonomic and hormonal efferent pathways
Total blood volume
A third factor that influences your blood pressure, called____is determined by the variable diameter or radius of the arterials. This factor is mostly under tonic, sympathetic control and strategically divert more blood flow to hard-working areas and sends less blood flow to less-essential organs at any given time.
Total peripheral resistance
The skeletal muscles, liver, and heart muscle will receive more or less blood at times of exercise?
More
The digestive system, urinary system and reproductive organs will all receive mor or less blood flow during exercise?
Less
When high levels of nitric oxide is released as a paracrine signal molecule by neurons, that will cause _____ blood flow to those neurons
Increased
The area around an infection will become red and swollen due to _____ blood flow to that area.
Increased
When you have a cut in the skin, thrombocytes (platelets) in the blood will be attracted to the area and release high levels of serotonin. This signal molecule stimulates _____ blood flow in the damaged area to limit its loss from the body as the injury is repaired
Decreased
When body tissues have very high levels of oxygen present this gas acts as a paracrine signal leading to _____ blood flow to that area. This change allows cells in the area to use up the surplus oxygen and return conditions to homeostasis.
Decrease (rest and digest mode)
When body tissues are very active they will increase their production of ATP. This in turn causes more production of carbon dioxide and H+ ions. Which theme leads to increased pH. Under these conditions those ions will be signal molecules and will cause an _____ in blood flow through that area to help return conditions to homeostasis.
Increased
Vasopressin is a neurohormone released by posterior pituitary. It is released at high levels when the body becomes dehydrates and total blood volume drops. Vasopressin therefore acts at a _____ to increase peripheral resistance around the body and help to bring blood pressure back up.
Vasoconstrictor
Low levels of hormone called angiotensin II are produces when the body is over hydrated and total blood volume increases. Under these conditions angiotensin II functions as a _____ to help bring blood pressure back down
Vasodilator
Natriuretic peptides are hormones that produced at high levels when blood volume and blood pressure are high. Therefore under these conditions these hormones functions as a _____to help bring blood pressure back down
Vasodilator
There are two main types of capillaries scattered around the body. _______ are located in areas that need maximum exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid, such as in capillaries passing through the kidneys or around the small intestines. These capillaries are extremely leaky, due to their loose junctions between endothelial cells and pores in their plasma membrane
Fenestrated capillaries
All other areas of the body that just need regular levels of exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid have _______. These capillaries are only moderately leaky at the junctions between endothelial cells
Continuous capillaries
These porous blood vessels are not technically capillaries, but they do allow for exchange of blood cells and plasma proteins with surrounding tissues. They are also much wider than standard capillaries. These kinds of vessels are found only in the bone marrow, liver, and spleen
, Sinusoids
Levels of oxygen, glucose, amino acids, and hormones are higher in the blood plasma passing through capillaries, relative to the interstitial fluid around nearby body cells. By contrast, metabolic wastes, such as carbon dioxide, creatinine, or urea, are released by cells. The level of these molecules is higher in the interstitial fluid than in the blood plasma passing through nearby capillaries. Movement of these solutes into or out of the leaky capillaries occurs down their individual concentration gradients by the process of ______.
Diffusion
Large proteins that are too bulky to pass through loose junctions between endothelial cells or fenestrations use a different mechanism to leave the blood plasma. They enter capillary endothelial cells by endocytosis, get trafficked across the cytoskeleton in vesicles, and then leave these cells by exocytosis to join the interstitial fluid of tissue cells. This membrane transport mechanism is called ________.
Transcytosis
When water leaves capillaries and enters the interstitial fluid around tissue cells that process is called
Filtration
When water enters the capillaries and leaves the interstitial fluid around tissue cells that process is called
Absorption
Two pressures dictate how much water leaves a capillary and how much enters it. This pressure drives absorption and uses osmotically- active solutes to pull water from the interstitial fluid into the capillaries.
Colloid osmotic pressure
This pressure drives filtration and describes the pressure pushing out against the inner walls of the capillaries. This pressure is also typically synonymous with “blood pressure”, at least for the intents and purposes of this class.
Hydrostatic pressure
When more water leaves a capillary network than enters it, tissue swelling, more technically called ______, will occur in that localized area.
Edema
This is the term for the liquid matrix of the blood. It is made up of 92% water, 7% dissolved proteins, and 1% other dissolved biomolecules
Plasma
plasma is identical to interstitial fluid except for the presence of _____ in blood.
plasma proteins
This is the most abundant protein in the liquid matrix of the blood. It
makes up about 60% of the total protein content of that fluid
albumin
This protein dissolved in the liquid matrix of the blood is essential for
creating clots after an injury to the vascular system occurs.
fibrogen
Another important category of protein that is dissolved in the liquid
matrix is _________, which provide defense from foreign invaders by
binding to their surface and “tagging” them for destruction.
immunoglobulins
The technical name for red blood cells is _______. They lose their
nucleus by the time they enter the bloodstream, where they carry
oxygen and carbon dioxide. They also only live for about 4 months.
erythrocytes
The technical name for white blood cells is _______. They are cells of
the immune system and defend the body against pathogens.
leukocytes
These cellular elements, commonly called platelets, also lack a nucleus
and are critical for blood clotting after a vascular injury.
thrombocytes
The larger cell type that platelets split off from during development is
called a __________.
megakaryocyte
All the cellular elements in blood are descended from a single
precursor cell type known as a __________ stem cell.
pluripotent hematopoietic
pluripotent hematopoietic resides in the _______ , and can develop into many different cell types.
Bone marrow
_______ is the term for the synthesis of blood cells, which begins
during embryonic development and continues throughout a person’s
life
hematopoiesis
Signal molecules in this category control hematopoiesis (synthesis of blood cells). They are made on-demand (not stored in
vesicles) by any nucleated cell and travel through the blood stream
cytokines
This specific signal molecule stimulates hematopoietic stem cells to
grow and differentiate into all types of blood cells, especially white
blood cells.
Colony-stimulating factors
This specific signal molecule influences the growth and differentiation
of red blood cells specifically. It is produced by the kidney.
Erythropoietin
This specific signal molecule influences the growth and differentiation
of the parent cell for platelets.
Thrombopoietin
The ratio of red blood cells to plasma is indicated clinically by the
_____ and is expressed as a percentage of the total blood volume.
Hematocrit
Because each red blood cell has lost its _____, they cannot synthesize
new proteins to maintain their membrane or enzymes to carry out
other repair processes. This contributes to their short, 4-month
lifespan
nucleus
Because red blood cells lack ___, they must rely on glycolysis for their
ATP production.
mitochondria
In some red blood cell disorders, the shape or ______ of the cells can
give clues as to the specific disease.
morphology
For example, in this disorder, the red blood cells change shape to
resemble a crescent. This abnormal shape causes these cells to jam up
in small blood vessels, blocking blood flow to tissues, which causes
tissue damage and sometimes extreme pain
sickle cell disease
When red blood cells are microcytic, often due to an iron deficiency,
their _____ is abnormally small.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV)
This protein is the main component of red blood cells and is best
known for its role in transporting oxygen. We will also see in lecture
that it also transports carbon dioxide as well as hydrogen ions
Hemoglobin
When blood cells are removed from circulation, the liver converts
remnants of hemoglobin into a
colored pigment called ______
Bilirubin
Bilirubin (the pigment made from the remnants of hemoglobin) is then used to
synthesize _____, which is an important part of the digestive process.
Bile
f a person has very low levels of hemoglobin in their blood, they have
a condition called _____. This condition can be caused by accelerated
red blood cell loss or decreased red blood cell production.
anemia
This term includes all the physiological mechanisms engaged to keep
blood within a damaged vessel.
Hemostasis
As soon as vessel damage occurs, the first step in repair is a reflex that
causes release of paracrine signal molecules that cause _____ in the
immediate area, which minimizes blood loss. Putting pressure on a
bleeding wound also aids in this underlying process.
Vasoconstriction
Exposed collagen fibers at the site of damage will cause ______ to
adhere and start the process of clotting.
Platelets (thrombocytes)
when platelets (thrombocytes) adhere to the
collagen, they become activated and release ____ into the area around
the injury. Two specific examples are serotonin and thromboxane A2,
which are localized vasoconstrictors to again help minimize blood loss
cytokines
The secretion of the specific signal molecules mentioned in the
previous question, along with another called platelet-activating factor
(PAF), stimulate more platelet aggregation and more secretion of these
signal molecules. This is an example of a (positive or negative)
feedback loop
posative
The final hemostatic mechanism is called the ______ and occurs when
a fibrin protein mesh ensnares erythrocytes and stabilizes the platelet
plug to form a clot (see Figure 16.11b for a visual).
coagulation cascade
Once the damaged vessel is repaired through the process of mitosis,
the clot retracts when the fibrin mesh is slowly dissolved by an enzyme
called ____
plasmin
Hemostasis is a delicate balance between too little response (which
can lead to excessive bleeding) or too much, which could create a ____
that can block blood flow in an undamaged vessel and deprive all its
tissues of vital nutrients
Thrombus (blood clot)
_____ are chemicals released by endothelial cells that prevent
coagulation from taking place
anticoagulants
The body naturally produces three anticoagulants. Two of these have fairly obscure names, like
protein C and antithrombin III, but the third is commonly used in a
clinical setting to prevent a blood sample from clotting prior to
analysis. It is called______
Heparin
People who are at risk of developing small blood clots are sometimes
told to take one ____ tablet every other day to thin the blood.
However, this chemical does not really affect blood viscosity. It
actually prevents platelet plug formation and therefore helps to inhibit
clot formation and prevent heart attacks or strokes
asprin
This is the best-known coagulation disorder where one of the factors in
the coagulation cascade is either defective or lacking, leading to
excessive bleeding
Hemophilia
A disease causing invader is generally called a ____
pathogen
any foreign particle (molecule, cell, etc) that can trigger an immune response is called an
antigen
_______ are single-celled organisms that can survive and reproduce
outside a host if conditions are ideal
Bacteria
_______ are not composed of cells, so they are not considered alive.
Rather these organisms have a protein coat or capsid, as well as an
additional protective envelope sometimes.
Viruses
These pathogens are not very common in the United States, but do
pose a serious health threat elsewhere in the world
parasites
These pathogens can have DNA or RNA as their genetic material.
viruses
These single-cell microorganisms are susceptible to antibiotics.
bacteria
Some varieties of these microorganisms can cause damage to your
cell’s DNA and therefore may sometimes cause cancer.
viruses
_______ are multi-cellular organisms that must invade a host cell and
use its resources to reproduce
parasites
these are the smallest of the three pathogens discussed in this section
and cannot reproduce without invading a host cell.
viruses
These microorganisms are also not susceptible to antibiotics, but there
are a few drugs that can disrupt parts of their replication cycle
viruses
These microorganisms do not package their DNA in a nucleus and
typically surround their cell membrane with a protective cell wall.
bacteria
Your body’s ability to combat the disease-causing microorganisms
discussed in this block of questions is called ______
immunity
If your immune system is weakened or destroyed, then you would not
be able to fight off infections that you normally could handle. This lack
of normal response is called a(n) _________
immunodeficiency disease
This kind of immunity is present from birth and is characterized by a
nonspecific response to invasion by any potential pathogen
innate immunity
This kind of immunity is directed at specific invaders and can vary in
magnitude and type depending on the specific pathogen. This kind of
immunity also requires experience with a specific pathogen and
“remembers” that prior exposure
adaptive immunity
The general name for sites in the lymph system where immune cells
form and mature are called _______
primary lymphoid tissues
The general name for lymph structures where mature immune cells
interact with pathogens and initiate a response are called ____
secondary lymphoid tissues
This is a two-lobed organ located just above the heart. This gland
produces T lymphocytes
thymus gland
Besides the thymusgland, this is another area
where immune cells form and mature
bone marrow
This encapsulated lymph structure contains immune cells that monitor
the blood for foreign invaders.
spleen
These encapsulated lymph structures are part of the lymphatic
circulation and contain immune cells that screen the lymph fluid for
any foreign invaders
lymphnodes
The _______ are aggregations in immune cells that appear in smaller
organs around the body, including the tonsils in the mouth and gut-
associated lymphoid tissue (just under the epithelium of the esophagus
and intestines)
diffuse lymphoid tissue
These signal molecules are proteins released by immune cells that
affect the growth and activity of other immune cells
cytokines
The technical name for white blood cells is ______.
leukocytes
This morphological category of white blood cells includes basophils,
mast cells, neutrophils, and eosinophils. It is so named because of the
dark bodies that are visible within each of these cells after staining
granulocytes
The cells mentioned in the previous question can release enzymes and
other molecules that are toxic to invaders from those dark bodies by
exocytosis. That process of release is called _______
degranulation
White blood cells can also be grouped by function. This functional
group of white blood cells will engulf and ingest their targets
phagocytes
In another functional group, white blood cells will engulf pathogens,
break them down, and display fragments of those foreign proteins on
their cell membrane to alert the rest of the immune system. That
group is called _____
antigen presenting cells
A third functional group of white blood cells will directly attack and kill
foreign invaders by puncturing their membrane and secreting enzymes
which destroy their DNA.
cytotoxic cells
This specific type of white blood cell is the most numerous, but only
lives for 1-2 days. They kill foreign invaders by ingesting them
neutrophils
This specific type of white blood cell is the rarest in the circulation, and
releases histamine when it detects foreign antigens. They are similar
to mast cells which live inside your tissues.
basophils
This specific type of white blood cell is cytotoxic and destroys invaders,
especially antibody-coated parasites
eosinophils
This specific type of white blood cell is phagocytic and moves through
your tissues, looking for invaders. It is also an antigen-presenting cell.
macrophages
These immune cells are antigen-presenting cells, and are characterized
by long, thin processes that resemble neuronal dendrites. They are
found in the skin and various organs.
dendritic cells
This group of white blood cells is diverse (as you will learn in the
coming questions). They mostly mediate the acquired immune
response of the body. You contain about a trillion of these cells at any
given time.
lymphocytes
One of the specific cell types that belongs to the category lymphocytes is ________. These cells are part of the innate
response to virus-infected cells. They induce these infected cells to
commit suicide.
natural killer cells
The technical term for cell suicide or programmed cell death is _____
apoptosis
The immune cells that specifically deal with virus-infected cells secrete
______ which are molecules that interfere with viral replication
interferons
Some specialized plasma proteins called complement are also
mobilized when viruses and bacteria invade the body. These
specialized proteins, called __________, insert themselves into the cell
membrane of pathogens and virus-infected cells and form giant pores
which causes those infected cells to die
membrane attack complexes
When a specific pathogen activates ________, they secrete antibodies,
which bind specifically to the invader and tag it for destruction by
other immune cells
B lymphocytes
When B lymphocytes is actively secreting
antibodies, it is called a ________
plasma cells
There are two main forms of T lymphocytes that we will learn about in
this course. This type will directly attack and destroy virus-infected
cells
cytotoxic T cell
This type of T lymphocyte is activated by macrophages that present
fragments of foreign invaders on their membrane. This type of cell
then acts as an “alarm bell” or “town crier” by activating B
lymphocytes and other T cells that actually attack the invader.
helper T cells
The ________ are a family of membrane protein complexes where
foreign antigens can be displayed and activate other immune cells.
major histocompatibility complexes
This specific class of the proteins named major histocompatibility complex is
found in all nucleated cells of the body. These platforms are used to
display bits of viral or bacterial proteins on their surface when they
become infected. This alerts the rest of the immune system of the
invasion
major histocompatibility complex class 1
This specific class of proteins named major histocompatibility complex is found primarily
in antigen-presenting cells. When they engulf an invader, they use
these platforms to display bits of the virus or bacteria. This again alerts
the rest of the immune system of the invasion
major histocompatibility complex class 2
What are the local vasodilators at high levels
Bradykinin, Histamine, Natriuretic peptides
what are the local vasoconstrictors at high levels
serotonin, vasopressin, angiotensin II
what is atrial natriuretic peptide
a local vasodilator
what does high perfusion in the capillaries mean
high blood flow. The precapillary sphincters are open. High waste pickup and high nutrient drop off.
What does low perfusion in the capillaries mean
low blood flow, the precapillary sphincters are mainly closed, there is lower waste pickup and low nutrient drop off.
what is net filtration in the capillaries
the water that is leaving the bloodstream at the capillaries. Mostly leaves at the arteriole side of the capillaries. this happens when hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure.
what is net absorption in the capillaries (Pi symbol)
the water that is moving back into the blood capillary bed. that happens at the venous end of the capillary. this is happening because of osmotic pressure being more than hydrostatic pressure.
what is hydrostatic pressure (PH)
pressure pushing on the walls of blood vessels. also how we get blood pressure.
