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Biology > Unit 5 Exam > Flashcards

Unit 5 Exam Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

nutritional mutants

A

unable to synthesize arginine

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2
Q

central dogma of biology

A

DNA to RNA to protein

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3
Q

enzyme to convert RNA to DNA

A

reverse transcriptase

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4
Q

one gene/ one polypeptide hypothesis

A

genes specify the structure of enzymes and each gene encodes the the structure of one enzyme

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5
Q

transcription

A

converting DNA to RNA, produces an exact copy of DNA on RNA, directly transfers info

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6
Q

translation

A

RNA to protein, requires translating from the nucleic acid to the protein “languages”

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7
Q

retroviruses

A

class of viruses that can convert their RNA genome into a DNA copy

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8
Q

template strand (antisense)

A

one of the 2 DNA strands that is used to be copied, complementary to RNA’s transcript’s sequence, 3’ to 5’

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9
Q

coding strand (sense)

A

the non copied strand of DNA, same sequence as RNA transcript, 5’ to 3’

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10
Q

mRNA

A

messenger RNA, used to direct the synthesis of polypeptides, carries DNA message to ribosome for processing

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11
Q

rRNA

A

ribosomal RNA, multiple sub types used by ribosomes

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12
Q

tRNA

A

transfer RNA, interpret mRNA and escort amino acids

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13
Q

small RNAs (miRNA, siRNA)

A

regulate gene expression

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14
Q

snRNA

A

small nuclear RNA, part of the machinery involved in nuclear processing of eukaryotic pre mRNA

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15
Q

SRP

A

signal recognition particle, contains both RNA and proteins, mediates protein synthesis by ribosomes in rough ER

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16
Q

codons

A

basic unit of genetic code, sequence of 3 adjacent nucleotides in DNA/mRNA that codes for one amino acid

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17
Q

RNA polymerase

A

synthesizes RNA from DNA template, in prokaryotes it is divided into core and holoenzyme

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18
Q

core polymerase

A

synthesizes RNA using a DNA template, made of 2 alpha subunits, beta subunit, and beta’ subunit

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19
Q

2 alpha subunits in core polymerase

A

help to hold the compex together and bind to regulatory molecules

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20
Q

beta and beta’ subunits in core polymerase

A

the active site, bind to DNA template

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21
Q

holoenzyme

A

initiates synthesis, sigma added to core polymerase

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22
Q

promoter

A

start site for RNA transcription, forms a recognition and binding site for the RNA polymerase

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23
Q

terminator

A

site on DNA that sends a signal to RNA polymerase to end transcription

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24
Q

transcription unit

A

from promoter to terminator

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25
Q

transcription bubble

A

region containing the RNA polymerase, the DNA template, and the growing RNA transcript

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26
Q

difference between transcription in eukaryotes vs prokaryotes

A
  • in prokaryotes, transcription is occuring at the same time as translation (coupling)
    in eukaryotes, transcription is in nucleus and translation is in cytoplasm
  • prokaryotes organize multiple genes on the same mRNA with operons
  • eukaryotes have 3 RNA polymerases while prokaryotes have 1
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27
Q

operons

A

single transcription unit that encodes multiple enzymes

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28
Q

RNA polymerase 1

A

transcribes rRNA

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29
Q

RNA polymerase 2

A

transcribes mRNA, TATA box promoter

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30
Q

RNA polymerase 3

A

transcribes tRNA and small RNAs

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31
Q

transcription factors

A

interact with RNA polymerase 2 to form an initiation complex at the promoter that is necessary for transcription to occur

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32
Q

initiation complex

A

in eukaryotes, transcription requires binding of transcription factors to promoter before RNA polymerase 2 binds to DNA

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33
Q

primary transcript

A

RNA synthesized by RNA polymerase 2, which is processed to produce the mature mRNA

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34
Q

5’ cap

A

methylated GTP added to protect 5’ end while transcription is still in process, protecting the end from degradation

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35
Q

3’ poly A tail

A

polyadenylation signal sequence, series of 100-200 adenine residues is added after the cleavage by enzyme poly A polymerase

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36
Q

introns

A

non coding DNA, that interrupts the sequence of the gene, intervening sequences

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37
Q

exons

A

coding sequences that are expressed

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38
Q

spliceosome

A

organelle that removes noncoding sequences (introns) from mRNA

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39
Q

structure of tRNA

A

has to be able to interact with mRNA and amino acids, made of acceptor stem and anticodon loop

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40
Q

acceptor stem

A

3’ end of the molecule, binds to amino acid

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41
Q

anticodon loop

A

bottom loop of clover leaf, can base pair with codons in mRNA

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42
Q

tRNA charging reaction

A

reaction catalyzed by activating enzymes to bind an amino acid to a tRNA, making it a charged tRNA

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43
Q

A site on ribosome

A

aminoacyl, binds to tRNA carrying next amino acid in sequence (docking)

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44
Q

P site on ribosome

A

peptidyl, binds to tRNA attached to peptide chain (attaching)

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45
Q

E site on ribosome

A

binds to tRNA that carried previous amino acids (exiting)

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46
Q

initiation of translation

A

AUG start codon on mRNA codes for methionine, tRNAmet is positioned over the first chain AUG codon of mRNA, forms EPA sites where successive tRNA molecules bind to the ribosomes

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47
Q

elongation of translation

A

tRNA go through elongation cycle, moving their bound amino acid to mRNA by forming peptide bonds, tRNA anticodon must match mRNA codon, translates in 5’ to 3’ direction

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48
Q

termination of translation

A

requires a stop codon on the mRNA, stop codons don’t bind tRNA but bind to release factors, release of a polypeptide from the final tRNA and dissociation of ribosome, concludes the process of gene expression

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49
Q

mutation

A

heritable change in genetic material

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50
Q

base substitution

A

changing 1 nitrogenous base on DNA, may not lead to change in expression

51
Q

polymorphisms

A

genetic differences between individuals in a population

52
Q

point mutation

A

mutation that alters a single base

53
Q

missense mutation

A

“sense” of the codon involved has not been changed, changes an amino acid

54
Q

conservative missense mutation

A

occur when substituted amino acid is chemically similar (nonpolar for nonpolar)

55
Q

nonconservative missense mutation

A

occur when substitute is chemically different (polar for nonpolar), ex. sickle cell

56
Q

nonsense mutation

A

mutation leads to formation of stop codon, codon no longer makes “sense”

57
Q

copy number variation

A

(CNV) genomic rearrangements result in differences in the number of copies of a particular genomic region

58
Q

4 types of copy number variation

A
  • deletion (loss of DNA)
  • insertion
  • duplication (gain of DNA)
  • reciprocal translocation (one chromosome is broken and becomes part of another chromosome)
59
Q

direction of transcription and translation of RNA

A

reads DNA 3’ to 5’, but builds mRNA strand 5’ to 3’

60
Q

epigenetics

A

altering gene expression based on environment

61
Q

forms of epigenetics

A

adding methyl/acetyl groups and altering access to DNA
ex. women in great depression has extra methyl groups inherited

62
Q

cell determination

A

when a cell’s fate is decided (going to bone, brain, stomach, etc.)

63
Q

cell differentiation

A

develop unique cellular properties

64
Q

recombinant DNA

A

one DNA from different sources (difference organisms)

65
Q

anneal

A

joining 2 DNA strands at complementary sequence

66
Q

genomics

A

study of whole genomes, complete makeup of organisms

67
Q

genetic markers

A

any detectable genetic difference among individuals

68
Q

genetic map

A

shows relative positions on gene on chromosomes

69
Q

physical map

A

shows precise location/sizes for genes

70
Q

gene expression

A

conversion of genotype to phenotype

71
Q

regulatory proteins

A

modulating the ability of RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter

72
Q

positive control

A

increases the frequency of initiation

73
Q

negative control

A

decreases the frequency of initiation

74
Q

repressors

A

proteins that bind to regulatory sites on DNA called operators to decrease initiation of transcription, mediates negative control, prevents polymerase from binding

75
Q

activators

A

mediates positive control, allosteric proteins that bind to DNA and enhance the binding of RNA polymerase to promoter

76
Q

induction

A

occurs when enzymes for a certain pathway are produced in response to a substrate

77
Q

repression

A

occurs when bacteria capable of making biosynthetic enzymes do not produce them

78
Q

glucose repression

A

preferential use of glucose when other sugars are present

79
Q

increase in glucose levels, ___ in cAMP

A

decrease in cAMP, CAP is unable to activate promoter, blocking lactose

80
Q

cAMP

A

allosteric modulator

81
Q

operon

A

multiple genes with a single promoter that make 1 transcription unit

82
Q

general transcription factors

A

necessary for transcription to occur at all

83
Q

protein - primary structure

A

amino acid sequence

84
Q

protein - secondary structure

A

initial folding and twisting (motifs)

85
Q

protein - tertiary structure

A

combinations of secondary structures (domains)

86
Q

DNA binding motifs

A

directly involved in protein binding specificity

87
Q

most common DNA binding motif

A

helix-turn-helix, recognition helix fits into major groove

88
Q

specific transcription factors

A

alter transcription in certain cell types or in response to specific stimuli

89
Q

promoters

A

binding sites for general transcription factors

90
Q

enhancers

A

DNA sequences necessary for high levels of transcription that can act independently of position or orientation

91
Q

chromatin remodeling complexes

A

use factors to modify histones and DNA, and alter chromatin structure directly

92
Q

ATP dependent remodeling factor

A

molecular motors that use energy from ATP hydrolysis to alter the relationship between histone and DNA

93
Q

DNA methylation

A

doesn’t interfere with H-bonds but can interact with proteins

94
Q

histone methylation

A

methyl groups inhibit transcription

95
Q

histone acetylation

A

acetyl groups promote transcription

96
Q

4 major structural changes from histone remodeling

A

nucleosome sliding, remodeled nucleosome, nucleosome displacement, histone replacement

97
Q

cytoplasmic determinants

A

inherited maternally and deposited in oocyte

98
Q

recombinant DNA

A

building a single DNA molecule from different sources

99
Q

restriction endonucleases

A

enzymes that cleave DNA at specific locations, free ends can be joined to other strands of DNA

100
Q

EcoRI

A

typically cleave at GAATTC

101
Q

gel electrophoresis

A

technique using the negative charge on DNA to separate DNA molecules based on size

102
Q

molecular cloning

A

producing recombinant DNA molecules

103
Q

cDNA

A

complimentary DNA, the DNA sequence created from mRNA by reverse transcriptase, used in quantitative PCR

104
Q

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A

mimics the process of DNA replication to produce millions of copies of a DNA sequence by amplification without the need for molecular cloning

105
Q

PCR: denaturation

A

heat is used to separate strands of double stranded DNA

106
Q

PCR: annealing of primers

A

primers provide the 3’ OH required for elongation by DNA polymerase

107
Q

PCR: synthesis

A

DNA polymerase makes new DNA

108
Q

transgenic organisms

A

contains a gene from a different species (transgene) which has been incorporated into genome through genetic engineering

109
Q

genetically modified organisms

A

organisms that have been genetically altered by techniques other than conventional breeding

110
Q

knockout animal

A

one that has had a gene inactivated so that the function of the gene is lost, using embryonic stem cells

111
Q

FISH

A

fluorescent in situ hybridization, technique to allow for detection of gross chromosomal abnormalities (large deletions, inversion, duplications, and translocations)

112
Q

quantitative PCR

A

isolate mRNA, use reverse transcriptase to generate cDNA, use PCR to amplify cDNAs

113
Q

pros to GMOs

A

potential to reduce world hunger, reduced use of fossil fuels, reduced use of pesticides, reduced conversion of land

114
Q

cons to GMOs

A

potential to transfer allergens, unintended effects on non target organisms, genes escaping through hybridization

115
Q

genetic markers

A

any detectable differences in individuals

116
Q

genetic maps (linkage maps)

A

abstract maps that place the relative location of genetic markers on chromosomes based on recombination frequency between markers

117
Q

physical maps

A

precisely position genetic markers in the genome, with the ultimate physical map being the complete DNA sequence of a genome

118
Q

restriction maps

A

not suitable for large DNA molecules, used for organelle and viral genomes, uses restriction enzymes to cut DNA for mapping

119
Q

chromosome maps

A

use of different stains allows for the construction of a cytological map of the entire genome based on banding patterns on chromosomes

120
Q

sequence tagged site mapping

A

combines the best of restriction mapping with the best mapping via FISH

121
Q

2 types of genome fragment assembly for whole genome sequencing

A

clone-contig assembly and shotgun assembly

122
Q

clone-contig assembly

A

assemble portions of a chromosome first and then figure out how the bigger pieces fit together

123
Q

shotgun assembly

A

try to assemble all the pieces at once, instead of in a stepwise fashion, no prior information about the sequenced genome is required

124
Q

how many genes in all mammals

A

20k-25k

Biology (5 decks)

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