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Biology > Unit 4 Exam > Flashcards

Unit 4 Exam Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

DNA replication is a semiconservative process

A

old DNA is strung in with new DNA

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2
Q

binary fission

A

1 mother cells yields 2 daughter cells, that are genetically identical
- old DNA and new DNA move to opposite sides
- 2 nucleotoids are assembled
- septum is partitioned in the middle of 2 daughter cells (FtsZ facilitates)
- when septum is complete, cell pinches in two

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3
Q

nucleosome

A

1 part of DNA around histone

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4
Q

solenoid

A

bunch of nucleosomes

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5
Q

organization of DNA

A

DNA -> nucleosome -> solenoid -> chromatin loop -> rosettes of chromatin loops -> mitotic chromosome

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6
Q

n chromosome

A

haploid

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7
Q

2n chromosome

A

diploid

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8
Q

Xn chromosome

A

polyploid

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9
Q

proteins that package DNA in Eubacteria

A

SMC proteins

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10
Q

proteins assist packaging DNA in Archaea

A

histone proteins

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11
Q

proteins that assist packaging DNA in eukaryotes

A

histone proteins

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12
Q

karyotype

A

visual representation of all of an organism’s chromosomes

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13
Q

loci

A

physical location of gene in DNA

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14
Q

gene

A

a DNA sequence coding a specific trait

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15
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

same genes at the same loci

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16
Q

allele

A

alternate form of a gene

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17
Q

sister chromatids

A

replicated copies, bound by cohesion proteins and kinetochores

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18
Q

clonal

A

each cell produced by cell division is identical, bacterial cell division

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19
Q

chromatin

A

complex of about 40% DNA and about 60% protein

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20
Q

nucleosome

A

composed on DNA and histone proteins, gives a bead on a string appearance

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21
Q

heterochromatin

A

inactive domains of chromatin

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22
Q

euchromatin

A

active domains of chromatin

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23
Q

2 phases of cell cycle

A

interphase and M phase

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24
Q

3 phases of interphase

A

G1, S, G2

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25
Q

2 phases of M phase

A

mitosis and cytokinesis

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26
Q

G1 phase

A

gap phase 1, primary growth phase of the cell, longest phase

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27
Q

S phase

A

synthesis, phase in which cell synthesizes a replica of its DNA genome

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28
Q

G2 phase

A

gap phase 2, second growth phase, microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle, involves preparation for separation of the newly replicated genome

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29
Q

mitosis

A

essential step in the separation of the two daughter genomes

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30
Q

5 stages of mitosis

A

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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31
Q

cytokinesis

A

phase of the cell cycle when the cytoplasm divides, creating two daughter cells

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32
Q

cytokinesis in animal cells vs plant cells

A

animal cells: cleavage furrow
plant cells: cell plate

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33
Q

G0 phase

A

sometimes done in G1 before DNA replication, resting state

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34
Q

centromere

A

point of constriction on the chromosome containing repeated DNA sequences that bind specific proteins

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35
Q

kinetochore

A

proteins making up a disk like structure on chromosome, functions as an attachment site for microtubules

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36
Q

prophase

A

begins when individual condensed chromosomes first become visible with the light microscope, formation of spindle apparatus, nuclear envelope breaks down, golgi and ER are dispersed

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37
Q

prometaphase

A

chromosomes attach to microtubules at kinetochores, chromosomes move to equator of cell

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38
Q

metaphase

A

all chromosomes are aligned at equator of cell (metaphase plate), chromosomes are attached to opposite poles and under tension

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39
Q

anaphase

A

proteins holding centromeres are degraded, freeing individual chromosomes, chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles, spindles poles move apart

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40
Q

telophase

A

chromosomes are clustered at opposite poles and decondense, chromosomes turn into chromatin, nuclear envelopes reform, golgi and ER is reformed, spindle is disassembled

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41
Q

anaphase A

A

kinetochores are pulled by microtubules

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42
Q

anaphase B

A

poles move away from each other

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43
Q

G1/S checkpoint

A

primary point at which the cell decides whether or not to divide, nutritional state, growth factors, size of the cell

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44
Q

G2/M checkpoint

A

assesses the success of DNA replication, passage commits the cell to mitosis and cytokinesis, uses MPF

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45
Q

MPF

A

mitosis promoting factor, damage to DNA inhibits MPF

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46
Q

spindle checkpoint

A

assures all the chromosomes are attached to the spindle in prep for anaphase, uses APC

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47
Q

CdK

A

protein kinase that activates numerous cell proteins by phosphorylating them

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48
Q

APC

A

anaphase promoting complex, at spindle checkpoint, it senses everything in order and triggers anaphase

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49
Q

phenotype

A

physical makeup of an organism

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50
Q

genotype

A

genetic makeup of all organisms

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51
Q

homozygous cross

A

same copies of alleles

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52
Q

homozygous dominant

A

AA

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53
Q

homozygous recessive

A

aa

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54
Q

heterozygous cross

A

1 has dominant allele and 1 has recessive allele, Aa

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55
Q

pleiotropy

A

1 gene affects multiple traits

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56
Q

sex determination

A

inheritance pattern of sex chromosomes, determining XX vs XY

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57
Q

sex differentiation

A

developmental process to build the phenotype, driven by hormones to differentiate the sex, I.e., gonads, genitalia, body hair

58
Q

AIS

A

androgen insensitivity syndrome

59
Q

non disjunction

A

failure of chromosomes to properly separate in meiosis

60
Q

trisomic

A

extra chromosome, ex. Down syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome

61
Q

monosomic

A

missing 1 chromosome

62
Q

XO-turner syndrome

A

only having X chromosome

63
Q

sex linked traits

A

affect males more than females, more genes on X chromosome

64
Q

autosomal

A

affected balance between genders

65
Q

epigenetics

A

mechanisms that alter gene expression

66
Q

gametes

A

egg and sperm, each contained two chromosomes

67
Q

somatic cells

A

nonreproductive cells of embryos and mature individuals, containing 4 chromosomes

68
Q

zygote

A

a single cell fused together from egg and sperm

69
Q

syngamy

A

fertilization of egg and sperm to form a zygote

70
Q

meiosis

A

produces haploid cells (egg or sperm) to form diploid cells, splitting the number of chromosomes before fusing them together to make sure they have the same number of chromosomes

71
Q

sexual reproduction

A

alternation of meiosis and fertilization, child will inherit 23 chromosomes from mother and 23 chromosomes from father

72
Q

germline cells

A

cells set aside for future animal reproduction, undergo meiosis to create haploid gametes

73
Q

synapsis

A

when homologous chromosomes find each other and become closely associated, or pairing

74
Q

synaptonemal complex

A

joining the paired homologs, consists of a central element connected by filaments to two sets of lateral elements that interact with the homolog

75
Q

crossing over

A

process allows the homologs to exchange chromosomal arms, producing genetic recombination (humans typically have 2-3)

76
Q

recombinants

A

chromosomes resulting from crossing over

77
Q

chiasmata

A

sites of crossing over

78
Q

main distinction of meiosis from mitosis

A

2 divisions with 1 round of DNA replication, pairing of homologous chromosomes

79
Q

independent assortment

A

in meiosis I, pole may either receive the maternal or paternal homolog from any chromosome pair

80
Q

tetrad

A

2 homologous chromosomes paired next to each other

81
Q

Mendel’s P-generation

A

establish true breeding parent lines through self fertilization

82
Q

Mendel’s F1 generation

A

perform reciprocal crosses

83
Q

anthers

A

male part containing pollen to give rise to haploid spermc

84
Q

carpel

A

female part containing ovules that give rise to haploid eggs

85
Q

Mendel pea plant experiment

A

cut anthers off a purple plant and give it pollen (sperm) from a white plant
F1 generation of crossing just produced purple plants
F2 generation produced 3 purple (dominant) to 1 white (recessive)

86
Q

genotype

A

total set of alleles that an individual contains

87
Q

phenotype

A

physical appearance or other observable characteristics of that individual, result from an allele’s expression

88
Q

principle of segregation

A

2 alleles for a gene segregate during gamete formation and are rejoined at random, one from each parent, during fertilization

89
Q

Punnett square

A

simple diagram visualizing the F2 possibilities

90
Q

Principle of Independent Assortment

A

in a cross, the alleles of a gene segregate independently of other genes

91
Q

testcross

A

an individual with unknown genotype is crossed with the homozygous recessive genotype

92
Q

phenotypic plasticity

A

different phenotypes for the same genotype due to environmental conditions

93
Q

polygenic inheritance

A

additive contributions to a phenotype by several genes giving a continuous distribution of a trait (ex. height), more than 1 gene mediates expression of a trait

94
Q

heritability

A

variation in phenotype due to genetic factors

95
Q

pleiotropic

A

an allele has more than one effect on the phenotype (ex. sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis), single gene may affect multiple traits

96
Q

incomplete dominance

A

phenotype of heterozygote is intermediate between those of the two homozygotes

97
Q

codominant

A

when each allele has its own affect on the phenotype, heterozygotes show aspects of both homozygotes (ex. AB blood type)

98
Q

A blood type

A

add only galactosamine, iA dominant to i

99
Q

B blood type

A

add only galactose, iB dominant to i

100
Q

AB blood type

A

add both galactose and galactosamine, iAiB, codominant

101
Q

O blood type

A

no sugar is added, ii allele, i is recessive

102
Q

Drosophila study

A

found the gene for eye color to be sex linked in fruit flies

103
Q

dosage compensation

A

one of the X chromosomes is inactivated in females, which ensures an equal level of expression from the sex chromosomes

104
Q

barr body

A

inactivated X chromosome

105
Q

genetic mosaics

A

their individual cells may express different alleles, depending on which chromosome is inactivated

106
Q

genomic imprinting

A

phenotype of a specific allele is expressed when the allele comes from one parent but not from the other

107
Q

epigenetic inheritance

A

epigenetic change is defined as a mitotically of meiotically stable change in gene function that does not involve a change in DNA sequence

108
Q

linkage

A

do not undergo independent assortment, they are near each other so they will segregate

109
Q

increase in distance between 2 genes on a chromosome….

A

more crossing over

110
Q

recombination frequency

A

frequency of recombinant progeny in a testcross divided by total number of progeny

111
Q

monosomy

A

loss of a single chromosome, most do not survive

112
Q

trisomy

A

gain of a single chromosome, can lead to embryonic lethality

113
Q

three point cross

A

to order genes, recombinant is in the middle, 2 parental on either side

114
Q

pedigree

A

consistent graphical representation of matings/offsprings for a particular trait
square = male
circle = female

115
Q

pedigree analysis

A
  • is the trait dominant or recessive?
  • is the trait sex linked or autosomal? (seen much more in males, then sex linked)
116
Q

hemophilia

A

recessive disorder, expressed only when an individual does not possess any copy of the normal allele and so cannot produce one of the proteins necessary for clotting

117
Q

amniocentesis

A

procedure that permits the prenatal diagnosis of many genetic disorders, takes hypodermic syringe to extract amniotic fluid for testing

118
Q

CVS

A

chorionic villus sampling; injecting the syringe through the vaginal canal and extracting some of the placenta for testing

119
Q

SRY gene

A

directs ovaries to become testes and clitoris to become penis

120
Q

sequence of nitrogenous bases

A

go from 5’ phosphate group to 3’ hydroxy group

121
Q

Chargaff’s rules

A

proportion of A always equals T, and proportion of G always equals C

122
Q

how many hydrogen bonds forming A-T base pair

A

2 hydrogen bonds, easier to open

123
Q

how many hydrogen bonds forming G-C base pair

A

3 hydrogen bonds

124
Q

oriC

A

origin of DNA replication in E coli

125
Q

replicon

A

DNA controlled by an origin

125
Q

terminus

A

where the DNA replication ends in E coli

126
Q

DNA polymerase 1

A

acts on lagging strand

127
Q

DNA polymerase 2

A

proofreading

128
Q

DNA polymerase 3

A

main replicating enzyme

129
Q

endonucleases

A

cut DNA internally

130
Q

exonucleases

A

remove nucleotides from end of DNA

131
Q

helicase

A

enzyme with DNA unwinding activity, requires ATP, forming single strands

132
Q

supercoiling

A

unwinding of two strands, introduces torsional strain

133
Q

topoisomerases

A

enzymes that can alter the topological state of DNA, ex. gyrase

134
Q

gyrase

A

type of topoisomerase, goes before helicase to relieve torsional strain so polymerase can replicate new DNA

135
Q

leading strand

A

strand synthesized in a continuous fashion from an initial primer

136
Q

lagging strand

A

strand that is discontinuous

137
Q

Okazaki fragments

A

DNA fragments synthesized on the lagging strand

138
Q

replication fork

A

partial opening of a DNA helix to form 2 single strands, produces a forked structure

139
Q

DNA ligase

A

seals the “nick,” joining the Okazaki fragments into complete strands

140
Q

primose

A

synthesizes RNA primers

Biology (5 decks)

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