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Biology > Unit 3 Exam > Flashcards

Unit 3 Exam Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy of motion

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2
Q

potential energy

A

stored energy

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3
Q

oxidation

A

loss of electrons

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4
Q

reduction

A

gain of electrons

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5
Q

1st law of thermodynamics

A

energy cannot be created or destroyed

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6
Q

2nd law of thermodynamics

A

the entropy in the universe will increase with time

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7
Q

entropy

A

(S) measure of randomness or disorder of the system

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8
Q

entropy of ice cubes to water

A

ice cubes (more ordered, less stable) melts to water (less ordered, more stable), entropy increases: disorder increases

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9
Q

which is more stable: ATP or ADP

A

ATP more unstable than ADP, adding phosphate groups to covalent bonds make them unstable, low activation energy to break these bonds

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10
Q

substrate

A

anything that can be acted upon by an enzyme (reactants)

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11
Q

active site

A

where the substrate binds

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12
Q

allosteric site

A

regulatory site

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13
Q

allosteric inhibition

A

where the pathway gets stopped

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14
Q

allosteric modulation

A

where the pathway gets activated

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15
Q

affinity

A

how strong/weak the association between enzymes and substrates

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16
Q

feedback inhibition

A

negative feedback loop, slows the sequence of reactions down

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17
Q

positive feedback loop

A

induces higher rates of pathways, more product

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18
Q

3 types of respiration

A

aerobic, anaerobic, and fermentation

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19
Q

aerobic

A

oxygen is final electron acceptor

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20
Q

anaerobic

A

some inorganic substance is the final electron acceptor

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21
Q

fermentation

A

some organic substance is the final electron acceptor, when glycolysis is not working hard enough to keep up, produces lactate or acetaldehyde (yeast cells), recycles NAD+

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22
Q

obligate pathways

A

have to do it

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23
Q

facilitative pathways

A

do it if you have to

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24
Q

NAD+

A

electron carrier, made of NMP and AMP

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25
Q

NMP

A

active part of NAD+

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26
Q

AMP

A

structural core of NAD+

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27
Q

inhibition enzyme for glycolysis

A

phosphofructokinase

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28
Q

inhibition enzyme for krebs cycle

A

pyruvate dehydrogenase, controls the oxidation of pyruvate, converts pyruvate to CoA for the cycle, inhibited by high levels of NADH

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29
Q

carbon fixation

A

inorganic carbon (CO2) to organic carbon (sugar)

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30
Q

uses for ATP

A

biosynthesis, transport across membrane, movement, and intracellular transport

ATP is also an allosteric inhibitor, inhibiting its own production when too much is being formed

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31
Q

which structures stabilize associations between substrates

A

proteins and RNA

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32
Q

influences of enzyme activity

A

temperature, pH, inhibitors, activators

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33
Q

competitive inhibition

A

blocks the active site, 2 molecules compete for same binding site, inhibitor molecule binds at active site prevents substrate from binding to that site

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34
Q

noncompetitive inhibition

A

binds to a location other than active site, allosteric inhibitor changes shape of enzyme so it cannot bind to substrate

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35
Q

free energy

A

(G) maximum energy available to do work in any system delta G = delta H - T delta S

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36
Q

endergonic

A

requires an input of energy for reaction to proceed, delta G> 0, non spontaneous

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36
Q

exergonic

A

energy is released in the reaction, delta G< 0, spontaneous

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37
Q

activation energy

A

initial input of energy

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38
Q

if activation energy high, the spontaneous reaction will occur…

A

slowly; i.e. iron rusting

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39
Q

what is ATP made of

A

made of adenine, ribose, and triphosphate group

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40
Q

where is ATP storing their energy

A

in phosphate group, each phosphate group is negatively charged, the covalent bonds are unstable by their repulsion, like a coiled spring

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41
Q

activation energy of ATP hydrolysis is quite high, how are we able to synthesize

A

enzymes act as catalysts by lowering the activation energy

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42
Q

metabolism

A

total of all chemical reactions in an organism

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43
Q

anabolism

A

chemical reactions that expend energy to build up molecules (dehydration reactions), i.e. acetyl coA

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44
Q

catabolism

A

reactions that harvest energy by breaking down molecules (hydrolysis)

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45
Q

autotrophs

A

organism that can use simple organic compounds to build all the complex organic molecules it requires as its own food source, self-feeders, ex. plants take sunlight to make glucose in photosynthesis

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46
Q

heterotrophs

A

fed by others, obtain organic compounds by eating either autotrophs (salad) or other heterotrophs (burger)

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47
Q

cellular respiration

A

involves the oxidation of organic compounds and using the energy released to form ATP

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48
Q

dehydrogenations

A

oxidation reactions, the electrons obtained from oxidizing food molecules are accompanied by a proton so that what is really being transferred is a hydrogen, not just an electron

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49
Q

how NAD+ works

A

coenzyme to facilitate transfer of electrons, after attaching to active site on an enzyme, it accepts a pair of electrons from the substrate and a proton to form NADH

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50
Q

2 mechanisms for ATP synthesis

A

substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation

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51
Q

substrate level phosphorylation

A

ADP is phosphorylated by a substrate to form ATP, glycolysis

52
Q

oxidate phosphorylation

A

phosphorylation using the free energy from redox reactions in electron transport chain

53
Q

where does glycolysis occur

A

cytoplasm

54
Q

glycolysis process

A

converts glucose into 2-3carbon molecules of pyruvate, 1 molecule nets 2 ATP

55
Q

3 phases of glycolysis

A

priming reactions, cleavage, oxidation and ATP formation

56
Q

priming reactions

A

3 reactions to prime 6 carbon glucose by taking 2 ATP and transferring 2 phosphate groups to each side of glucose, bending the glucose molecule

57
Q

cleavage

A

6 carbon sugar diphosphate is split into 2-3 carbon sugar phosphates called G3P

58
Q

oxidation and ATP formation

A
  • each G3P is oxidized, transferring 2 electrons to NAD+, forming NADH
  • additional phosphate is added to each G3P, making BPG
  • BPG is converted to pyruvate by removing the phosphates to ADP to form ATP
59
Q

net energy yield of glycolysis

A

2 ATP and 2 NADH

60
Q

glycolysis reaction sequence

A

glucose + 2ADP + 2P + 2NAD+ -> 2 pyruvates + 2 ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O

61
Q

purpose of citric acid cycle

A

to oxidize NADH back to NAD+

62
Q

where is the citric acid cycle

A

in mitochondria, carrier protein transports the pyruvate from cytoplasm to mitochondria

63
Q

steps to Krebs cycle

A
  • pyruvate loses a carboxyl group, and is now an acetyl group, CO2 is byproduct
  • NAD+ accepts electrons to form NADH
  • the acetyl group attaches to coA
  • CoA enters Krebs cycle to rip carbons off, creating ATP
64
Q

what does pyruvate oxidation yield

A

acetyl CoA, NADH, CO2, and H+

65
Q

what does Krebs cycle yield

A

CO2, 1 ATP per cycle, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2

66
Q

electron transport chain

A

NADH transports electrons in, creating a proton gradient, electrons are used to reduce oxygen and form water, the electrochemical gradient of protons supplies energy for ATP synthesis

67
Q

chemiosmosis

A

movement of H+ ions through semi permeable membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient used to synthesize ATP

68
Q

how does proton gradient work

A

all the intermembrane space gets a bunch of H+ ions, which become attracted to negative mitochondria matrix, also by diffusion, H+ ions want to reenter mitochondria going from high conc. to low conc., driving the H+ ions to ATP synthase

69
Q

ATP synthase

A

molecular rotary motor that rotates as H+ ions move through the membrane, the energy is then used to catalyze the formation of ATP from ADP and P

70
Q

total net ATP yield

A

30-36

71
Q

citrate synthetase

A

catalyzes conversion of oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA into citrate in Krebs cycle, inhibited by high levels of ATP

72
Q

deamination

A

removing an amino group from an amino acid

73
Q

how are proteins broken down

A

proteins are broken into amino acids, then amino group is removed, the remainder segment is fed into glycolysisb

74
Q

beta-oxidation

A

breaking down fats, fatty acids are oxidized until they are just acetyl groups, then fed into krebs cycle, oxygen dependent

75
Q

does respiration of fatty acids yield more than respiration of glucose

A

yes, 20% more

76
Q

anoxygenic

A

form of photosynthesis that does not produce oxygen,ex. purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria

77
Q

oxygenic

A

photosynthesis that does produce oxygen, normal plants

78
Q

light dependent reactions

A

reactions use light to make ATP and reduce NADP+ to NADPH and produces O2

79
Q

light independent reactions

A

reactions that use ATP and NADPH to synthesize organic compounds using CO2 from the air

80
Q

thylakoid membrane

A

internal membrane of chloroplasts, a continuous phospholipid bilayer organized into flattened sacs, contain chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments to capture light

81
Q

stroma

A

semiliquid substance surrounding the thylakoid membrane, houses the enzymes needed to assemble organic molecules from CO2 using energy from ATP; where Calvin cycle occurs

82
Q

photosystems

A

in the thylakoid membrane, photosynthetic pigments clustered together acting as an antenna gathering light energy

83
Q

pigment

A

molecules that absorb light in the visible range

84
Q

photoelectric effect

A

when a beam of light is able to remove electrons from certain materials, creating an electric current

85
Q

3 stages of photosynthesis

A
  • capture energy from sunlight
  • use energy to make ATP and reduce NADP+
  • use ATP and NADPH to synthesize organic molecules from CO2
86
Q

photons

A

light energy has wave and particle properties, porphoryrin ring with attached hydrocarbon tail

87
Q

porphoryin ring

A

where pigment is exciting electrons to contain the energy, pigment is stored here

88
Q

why is there a limit to photosynthetic use

A

not every electron from chlorophyll can be stripped/transferred

89
Q

reaction center

A

capturing all the (excited energy) photons from each individual chlorophyll

90
Q

electron donor in photosynthesis

A

water

91
Q

bacterial photosystem

A

only 1 photosystem, cyclic transfer of electrons, from being excited and then returning back to reaction center

92
Q

3 phases of calvin cycle

A

carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of RuBP

93
Q

enzyme for catalyzing the carbon fixation in CO2

A

rubisco

94
Q

photorespiration

A

when oxygen acts on rubisco site, which is not good for CO2 to be fixed, C4 plants utilize this when no water

95
Q

signal transduction

A

cell able to convert signaling molecules and transfer them to direct cell activity

96
Q

ligand

A

any chemical signal that can initiate transduction

97
Q

autocrine

A

ligand bind to the cell producing ligands

98
Q

endocrine and synaptic signaling

A

long distance communication

99
Q

kinase

A

enzymes that act as phosphorylaters, adding phosphates

100
Q

phosphotase

A

enzymes that act as dephosphorylaters, removing phosphates

101
Q

2 classes of hormones

A

steroid and peptide

102
Q

steroid hormones

A

made of lipids, can easily diffuse, bind intercellular, slow acting, longer lasting effects, act as regulators for gene expression

103
Q

peptide hormones

A

made of aminos, water soluble, bind extracellular, fast acting, shorter term effects

104
Q

2 things that make up a photosystem

A

antenna complex and reaction center

105
Q

antenna complex

A

light harvesting complex, captures photons from sunlight and channels them to reaction center

106
Q

steps to thylakoid reaction

A

primary photoevent, charge separation, electron transport, chemiosmosis

107
Q

1st step in thylakoid reaction - primary photoevent

A

photon is captured by pigment and excites an electron

108
Q

2nd step in thylakoid reaction - charge separation

A

excitation energy is transferred to reaction center initiation electron transport

109
Q

3rd step in thylakoid reaction - electron transport

A

electrons move through electron carriers in membrane, drives photon transport

110
Q

4th step in thylakoid reaction - chemiosmosis

A

potential energy of proton gradient drives ATP synthase

111
Q

calvin cycle

A

(C3 photosynthesis) carbon fixation, turning CO2 to organic compounds, first carbon is 3 carbon molecule (starts with 6 carbon molecule in krebs), focused on building molecules, (not degrading like in krebs)

112
Q

1st phase of calvin cycle - carbon fixation

A

rubisco catalyzes the reaction between CO2 and RuBP to form a 6 carbon intermediate that splits into 2 molecules of PGA

113
Q

2nd phase of calvin cycle - reduction

A

PGA is reduced to G3P using ATP and NADPH from the light reactions

114
Q

3rd phase of calvin cycle - regeneration of RuBP

A

G3P produced by reduction with additional energy from ATP is converted into RuBP to allow the cycle to continue

115
Q

output of calvin cycle

A

G3P is taken from chloroplast to cytoplasm to generate glucose and fructose, long chains of glucose can be linked to form starch

116
Q

stomata

A

specialized openings in the leaf that close to conserve water

117
Q

CAM plants

A

crassulacean acid metabolism, stomata open at night and close during the day, compounds stored in vacuoles until daytime

118
Q

direct contact signaling

A

signaling between direct cell to cell contact

119
Q

paracrine signaling

A

signal molecules released by cells can diffuse through the extracellular fluid to other cells, short lived, short distance

120
Q

endocrine signaling

A

released signal molecule is hormone, that remains in the extracellular fluid may enter circulatory system to travel throughout the body, long living, long distances

121
Q

synaptic signaling

A

cells of the nervous system provide rapid communication with distant cells using neurotransmitters, travel long distance fast

122
Q

protein kinase

A

class of enzyme that adds phosphate groups from ATP to proteins

123
Q

channel linked receptors

A

chemically gated ion channels that only open when a chemical binds to it

124
Q

enzymatic receptors

A

when a signal molecule binds to the receptor, it activates the enzyme

125
Q

G protein coupled receptors

A

acts indirectly on ion channels or enzymes with the aid of an assisting protein G protein, G protein is inserted between receptor and enzyme as an intermediate

126
Q

second messengers

A

small molecules or ions alter the behavior of cellular proteins by binding to them and changing their shape, relay messages through cytoplasm, ex. cAMP and Ca+

127
Q

RTK

A

receptor tyrosine kinases, influence cell cycle, cell migration, cell metabolism, and cell proliferation

Biology (5 decks)

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