Unit 5 Flashcards
memory
the persistance of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info
encoding
the processing of info into the memory system
storage
the process of retaining encoded info over time
retrieval
the process of getting info out of memory storage
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of info processing
connectionism
info processing model that views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
sensory memory
the immdeiate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system
short term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
info is encoded here through rehearsal
long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
includes knowledge, skills, and experience
working memory
a newer understanding of short term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial info, and of info retrieved from long term memory
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and ‘declare’
encoded through effortful processing
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well learned info like word meanings
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious memory
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or pitcure-image memory lasting no more than a few seconds
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3/4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study/practice (cramming)
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, info
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure/appearance/sound of a word
deep processing
encoding semantically based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield better retention
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system, helps process explicit memories for storage
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
recall
measure of memory in which a person must retrieve info learned previously
like a fill in the blank test
recognition
measure of memory in which the person only needs to identify items learned earlier
like a multiple choice test
relearning
measure of memory that asses the amount of time saved when learning material again
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with your current mood
serial posistion effect
the tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first (a primacy effect) in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve info from one’s past
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info
EX: a well learned password disrupting your recall of a new copier code
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info
EX: troubling remembering the original words to a song after you hear new words sung to the same tune
positive transfer
when previously learned info facilitates our learning of new info
EX: knowing spanish helps when you learn italian
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading info into a memory of an event
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
deja vu
that sense that you have already experienced something
cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concept
a mental grouping of similar ideas, people, objects, or events
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
similar to a stereotype
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
damaged by inury to left parietal lobe
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
damaged by injury to certain areas of the frontal lobes
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a problem
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems more efficiently
can be very error-prone
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
fixation
an inability to see a problem from a fresh persepctive
mental set
a tendency to apporach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has successful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought
respresentativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well tthey seem to represent, or match, certain prototypes
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of certain events based on their availability in memory, if instance readily come to mind we presume such events are common
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs or judgements
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed as been discredited
framing
the way an issue is posed
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
phonemes
the smallest distinct sound unit
ex: chat has 3; ch, a, t
morphemes
the smallest unit that carries meaning, could be a word or part of a word
grammar
a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
babbling stage
beginning at around age 4 months
the stage of speech development in which the infant spotaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
one-word stage
age 1-2
child speaks in mostly single words
ex: doggy
two word stage
age 2+
child speaks in mostly two word statements
ex: want juice
telegraphic speech
child speaks like a telegram - want juice - using mostly nouns and verbs
ex: kevin saying ‘why say lot word when few word do trick’
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to either brocas area or wernickes area
brocas area
controls language expression
an area of the frontal lobe, ususally in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements used in speech
wernickes area
controls language reception
a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression, usually in the left temporal lobe
linguistic determinism
whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the sbility to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numberical scores
general intelligence (g)
a general intelligence factor that, according to spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill
grit
in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in pursuit of long term goals
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
normal curve
the symmetrical, bell shaped curve that dexcribes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
what is the capacity of long term memory? are our long term memories processes and stored in specific locations?
our long term memory storage is essentially unlimited. memories are not stored intact in the brain in single spots. many parts of the brain interact as we form and retrieve memories.
what are the roles of the frontal lobes and hippocampus in memory processing?
the frontal lobes and hipocampus are parts of the brain network dedicated to explicit memory formation. many brain regions send info to the frontal lobes for processing. the hipppocampus, with the help of surrounding areas of cortex, registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long term storage.
how do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? how do we decide whether a memory is real of false?
in experiements demonstrating the misinformation effect, people have formed false memories by incorporating misleading details, either after having received wrong info after an event or after repeatedly imagining and rehearsing something that never happened. when we assemble a memory during retrieval, we may attribute it to the wrong source. source amnesia may explain deja vu. false memories are like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event.
what are the milestones in language development?
language development’s timing varies, but all children follow the same sequence. receptive language develops before productive language. at about 4 months, infants begin to babble, making sounds found in languages from all over the world. by about 10 months, their babbling contains only sounds found in their household language. aroung 12 months, children begin to speak in single words. this one word stage evolves into the two word stage before their second birthday.
what is the relationship between language and thinking, and what is the value of thinking in images?
although benjamin lee whorf’s linguistic determinism hypothesis suggested that language determines though, it is more accurate to say that language influences thought. different languages embody different ways of thinking, and immersion in bilingual education can enhance thinking. we often think in images when we use nondeclarative memory. thinking in images can increase our skills when we mentally practice upcoming events.
